Cancer is characterized by abnormal cell proliferation and uncontrolled expansion, leading to a range of devastating diseases. Over the past few decades, there has been a significant decrease in cancer-related mortality rates, largely due to improved understanding in oncological research,advancements in diagnostic techniques, and novel therapeutic interventions [1], traditionally standard cancer treatments included surgical intervention, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and various combinations of these therapies. However, metastatic cancer continues to pose a significant challenge, as conventional methods have been unsuccessful in transforming cold tumors into hot tumors and controlling cancer recurrence.as a result, a promising technology has emerged that leverages the body's intrinsic immune system to combat a variety of malignant tumors. The introduction of immunotherapy represents a significant breakthrough in the ongoing battle against cancer [2].

The concept of cancer immunotherapy was first proposed in 1890, principle of harnessing the body's immune system to recognize and combat cancer. Immunotherapy is categorized into six principal type: immune modulators, soluble tumor viruses, antigen or adjuvant vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, adoptive cell transplantation and immune checkpoint inhibitors. This method has led to significant advancements in clinical survival rates and a reduction in immune-related side effects for cancer patients [3]. Moreover, combining traditional cancer treatments with immunotherapy can create a more effective strategy for fighting cancer.

Despite these promising developments, cancer immunotherapy continued to face substantial challenges, including shortcomings in the real-time detection of immune responses, inadequate immunogenicity profiles, potential overestimation of efficacy, a risk of immune-mediated toxicity, a lack of sustained activity, and elevated production costs. These issues collectively limit the clinical applicability of research findings.

To address these challenges, scientists are integrating the different fields of cancer immunotherapy with various other disciplines, such as pharmacology, chemistry, biology, engineering, and materials science, with a specific emphasis on nanoparticles (NPs). This multidisciplinary approach has yielded numerous benefits, including improved clinical efficacy, enhanced treatment effectiveness, reduced systemic toxicity, and lower treatment costs. As a result, nanomaterials have become a valuable complement to immunotherapy in the ongoing battle against cancer [4].

In accordance with the definition established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a nanomaterial is characterized as a synthetic nano object with a length scale between 1 and 100 nm. This specific size range empowers NPs to overcome biological barriers, thus enabling precise drug delivery. Additionally, the morphology and surface chemistry of NPs can prove further advantages, such as enhancing drug solubility, stability, permeability, and retention. They also offer solutions to multi-drug resistance, assist in imaging, and serve as a platform for combination therapy [5]. The versatility of nanomaterials facilitate their application across various fields, including, but not limited to, inorganic NPs utilized as imaging probes, contrast agents. and agents for tumor thermal ablation. Organic NPs primarily focus on the targeted delivery of tumor antigens, controlled release of drugs, development of tumor vaccines, and intravenous administration of therapeutic drugs Therefore, nanomaterials have a wide range of impactful applications in the domain of immunotherapy. In this context, nanomaterials are particularly significant as they can be loaded with drugs that stimulates the immune system, thereby improving the efficacy of immunotherapy [6]. The aforementioned elements are primarily illustrated in Fig. 1, which depicts how immune treatments interact with other therapeutic modalities.