The general population ubiquitously encounters environmental phenols and phthalates through various sources such as vinyl, plastics, preservatives, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other raw materials (Schettler, 2006; Wang et al., 2019). These substances are endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) and pose potential health risks (Diamanti-Kandarakis et al., 2009; Sangeetha et al., 2021), including obesity, allergies, reproductive issues, and metabolic disorders upon exposure (Benjamin et al., 2017). While some chemicals are being regulated and replaced with relatively safer substances, they still exhibit high detection rates in the general population despite their short half-lives (less than 24 h) (Jung et al., 2022; Koch and Calafat, 2009; Nguyen et al., 2024). Moreover, exposure levels to replacement chemicals are increasing, and the long-term effects of these substitutes remain largely unexamined (Jiang et al., 2023; Runkel et al., 2022). Given these potential negative impacts, identifying the sources of exposure is crucial for disease prevention (Hou et al., 2011).

These chemical substances can enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption. Although the contribution of each pathway varies depending on the specific chemical, growing evidence supports dietary intake as an important exposure route for several environmental chemicals—particularly those introduced via food containers, packaging, and processing (Ring et al., 2019). Several studies have shown that significant amounts of chemical substances migrate from plastic containers used for food packaging into the food (Fang et al., 2017), and even more, chemicals can be released and migrate into the food when it is heated (Fierens et al., 2012; Lau and Wong, 2000). Additionally, phthalates in food can come from other sources, such as Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing used in food production, cling films for food packaging, and PVC gaskets in jars (Cao, 2010). Previous studies identify food exposure and personal care products as key sources of environmental phenols and phthalates, emphasizing the significance of dietary exposure (Husøy et al., 2019; Pacyga et al., 2019; Serrano et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2018). However, the dominant route of exposure may differ depending on the physicochemical properties of the compound and individual behaviors. For example, low-molecular-weight and lipophilic substances such as some parabens and phthalates can be readily absorbed through the skin, making the use of personal care products a significant contributor to chemical body burden—particularly among women (Chatterjee et al., 2024). In contrast, medium-sized compounds are usually ingested and metabolized in the liver, whereas larger particles such as microplastics—particularly in the micron range— may enter the body via inhalation and reach systemic circulation (Wu et al., 2022). These differences underscore the importance of considering sex, lifestyle, and product usage patterns when evaluating chemical exposure. Evidence from a randomized controlled study showed that the participants receiving behavioral interventions targeting both diet and personal care product use experienced reduced exposure to EDCs compared to the control group (Kim et al., 2021). These findings highlight the value of integrated behavioral strategies, such as dietary modifications, in reducing exposure to environmental phenols and phthalates.

Based on the premise that changing dietary habits can significantly mitigate these exposure risks, it is essential to identify foods associated with EDCs exposure, such as environmental phenols and phthalates. While individual foods can serve as sources of exposure, foods are generally consumed as meals, making it necessary to consider the complex interactions and cumulative effects within the overall diet rather than focusing solely on individual components (Hu, 2002). Dietary pattern analysis provides a more holistic and realistic perspective by capturing not only these interactions but also long-term consumption behaviors, which individual food analysis may fail to address. Despite the need to consider overall dietary patterns, few studies have comprehensively examined how different dietary habits influence exposure to EDCs, especially in non-Western populations (Sakhi et al., 2014; Schecter et al., 2013; Sioen et al., 2012). Furthermore, although dietary exposure is a significant pathway for chemical exposure alongside respiratory and dermal routes, research on dietary exposure remains comparatively limited, particularly regarding other exposure pathways (Muncke et al., 2020).

The modern food industry has undergone significant transformations, necessitating the identification of dietary exposures to environmental phenols and phthalates linked to specific diets. In Korea, rapid socioeconomic changes have also fostered the growth of packaging and food delivery cultures, heightening concerns about chemical exposure. Consequently, this study aims to identify dietary patterns associated with environmental phenols and phthalate metabolite concentrations in Korean adults.