Available online 19 January 2026, 104773

Author links open overlay panelBaoping Guo a 1, Cai ren a 1, Rongsheng Mi b 1, Jianyong Wu c, Mehdi Borhani a, Malike Aizezi d, Long Cheng e, Xiangqian Wang f, Liang Li a, Jenny Knapp g, Gang Guo h, Guodong Lü a, Kalibixiati Aimulajiang a, Wenqiang Tang i, Xinmiao Huang j, Hao Wen aShow moreHighlights•

Many past diffusion routes of E. multilocularis have been genetically confirmed;

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A total of 384 sequences E. multilocularis were divided into five clades.

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China-Xinjiang groups exhibited high diversity with an earlier differentiation time compared to other populations. Probably, Xinjiang is one of the origins of E. multilocularis;

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Accelerated parasite spread may result from the great discovery of geography and the first Industrial Revolution;

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Geographical distribution plays a critical role in shaping the evolution of E. multilocularis.

Abstract

Echinococcus multilocularis is a parasitic tapeworm responsible for alveolar echinococcosis (AE), a life-threatening zoonotic disease. Understanding its genetic diversity and historical spread is critical for developing effective control measures. Previous studies have suggested Central Asia as a potential origin of the parasite, but comprehensive global analyses encompassing multiple regions and time periods have been limited. This study aimed to analyze the genetic diversity, population structure, and phylogeography of E. multilocularis by sequencing the complete mitogenome from 384 isolates from major endemic regions across the Northern Hemisphere. We sequenced 201 new E. multilocularis mitogenomes and combined these with 183 previously published sequences. Phylogenetic, haplotype network, pairwise fixation index (Fst), and principal-component analysis (PCA) analyses were performed to explore genetic diversity, population structure, and the historical spread of the parasite. Bayesian phylogeographic reconstruction was used to infer diffusion routes across the Northern Hemisphere. Our analysis identified five major clades, with high genetic diversity observed in samples from China-Xinjiang and China-Midwest. The parasite exhibited significant genetic differentiation between continents, with most clades tracing their origins to Central Asia. Phylogeographic analysis suggested that E. multilocularis spread from Central Asia to Europe, Japan, and North America, primarily through wildlife migration and human activities. This study supports the hypothesis that Central Asia is the evolutionary origin of E. multilocularis and provides insights into its historical and contemporary dispersal patterns. The findings highlight the importance of monitoring and controlling the spread of human AE, particularly in regions, with high genetic diversity, to prevent further spread.

Graphical abstractDownload: Download high-res image (192KB)Download: Download full-size imageKeywords

Echinococcusmultilocularis

alveolar echinococcosis (AE)

Central Asia

pairwise fixation index (FST)

Genetic diversity

Bayesian phylogeographic

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These authors contributed equally to this work

© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Australian Society for Parasitology.