Mapping the intricate relationship between mental disorders and inflammation: research trends and pharmacological implications

Agarwal SM, Panda R, Costa-Dookhan KA, MacKenzie NE, Treen QC, Caravaggio F, et al (2021) Metformin for early comorbid glucose dysregulation and schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a pilot double-blind randomized clinical trial. Transl Psychiatry. 11(1):219. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-021-01338-2

Alkozi H (2024) Ocular surface health in connection with anxiety and depression: a review. JMDH. 17:2671–6. Available from: https://www.dovepress.com/ocular-surface-health-in-connection-with-anxiety-and-depression-a-revi-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JMDH

American Psychiatric Association (2022) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.) https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787

Andreassen OA, Hindley GFL, Frei O, Smeland OB (2023) New insights from the last decade of research in psychiatric genetics: discoveries, challenges and clinical implications. World Psychiatry. 22(1):4–24. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wps.21034

Arenella M, Matuleviciute R, Tamouza R, Leboyer M, McAlonan G, Bralten J, et al (2023) Immunogenetics of autism spectrum disorder: a systematic literature review. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 114:488–99. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S088915912300274X

Aria M, Cuccurullo C, Aria M, Cuccurullo C (2017) bibliometrix : an R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis. J Informetr. 11(4):959–75. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1751157717300500

Artin H, Bentley S, Mehaffey E, Liu FX, Sojourner K, Bismark AW, et al (2022) Effects of intranasal (S)-ketamine on Veterans with co-morbid treatment-resistant depression and PTSD: a retrospective case series. eClinicalMedicine. 48:101439. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589537022001699

Ashwood P, Krakowiak P, Hertz-Picciotto I, Hansen R, Pessah I, Van de Water J (2011) Elevated plasma cytokines in autism spectrum disorders provide evidence of immune dysfunction and are associated with impaired behavioral outcome. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 25(1):40–5. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0889159110004289

Barberio B, Zamani M, Black CJ, Savarino EV, Ford AC, Barberio B, et al (2021) Prevalence of symptoms of anxiety and depression in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 6(5):359–70. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2468125321000145

Benedetti F, Dallaspezia S, Melloni EMT, Lorenzi C, Zanardi R, Barbini B, et al (2021) Effective antidepressant chronotherapeutics (sleep deprivation and light therapy) normalize the IL-1β:IL-1ra ratio in bipolar depression. Front Physiol. 12:740686. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.740686/full

Berk M, Kapczinski F, Andreazza AC, Dean OM, Giorlando F, Maes M, et al (2011) Pathways underlying neuroprogression in bipolar disorder: focus on inflammation, oxidative stress and neurotrophic factors. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 35(3):804–17. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763410001545

Beurel E, Toups M, Nemeroff CB (2020) The bidirectional relationship of depression and inflammation: double trouble. Neuron. 107(2):234–56. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896627320304311

Bezin J, Bénard-Laribière A, Hucteau E, Tournier M, Montastruc F, Pariente A, et al (2025) Suicide and suicide attempt in users of GLP-1 receptor agonists: a nationwide case-time-control study. eClinicalMedicine. 80:103029. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589537024006084

Bjørklund G, Mkhitaryan M, Sahakyan E, Fereshetyan K, Meguid NA, Hemimi M, et al (2024) Linking environmental chemicals to neuroinflammation and autism spectrum disorder: mechanisms and implications for prevention. Mol Neurobiol. 61(9):6328–40. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12035-024-03941-y

Borsini A, Di Benedetto MG, Giacobbe J, Pariante CM, Borsini A, Di Benedetto MG, et al (2020) Pro- and anti-inflammatory properties of interleukin in vitro: relevance for major depression and human hippocampal neurogenesis. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 23(11):738–50. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ijnp/article/23/11/738/5878090

Brambilla F, Perna G, Bellodi L, Arancio C, Bertani A, Perini G, et al (1997) Plasma interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor concentrations in obsessive–compulsive disorders. Biol Psychiatry. 42(11):976–81. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322396004957

Brouwer A, van Raalte DH, Nguyen HT, Rutters F, van de Ven PM, Elders PJM, et al (2019) Effects of light therapy on mood and insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes and depression: results from a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Diabetes Care. 42(4):529–38. Available from: https://diabetesjournals.org/care/article/42/4/529/36110/Effects-of-Light-Therapy-on-Mood-and-Insulin

Brown JS (2009) Effects of bisphenol-A and other endocrine disruptors compared with abnormalities of schizophrenia: an endocrine-disruption theory of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 35(1):256–78. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/schbul/sbm147

Butler M, Abdat Y, Zandi M, Michael BD, Coutinho E, Nicholson TR, et al (2024) Mental health outcomes of encephalitis: an international web‐based study. Eur J Neurol. 31(1):e16083. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ene.16083

Cai J, Xiao J, Long Y, Cao T, Lin C, Hei G, et al (2025) Metformin-improved cognitive impairment in patients with schizophrenia is correlated with activation of tricarboxylic acid cycle and restored functional connectivity of hippocampus. BMC Med. 23(1):349. Available from: https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-025-04218-4

Chan KL, Cathomas F, Russo SJ (2019) Central and peripheral inflammation link metabolic syndrome and major depressive disorder. Physiology. 34(2):123–33. Available from: https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physiol.00047.2018

Chang KJ, Wu HY, Chiang PH, Hsu YT, Weng PY, Yu TH, et al (2024) Decoding and reconstructing disease relations between dry eye and depression: a multimodal investigation comprising meta-analysis, genetic pathways and Mendelian randomization. J Adv Res. S2090–1232(24):00115–2. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2090123224001152

Chang Y, Hsieh M, Ju P, Chang C, Chang Y, Hsieh M, et al (2026) Risk of depression with GLP‐1 receptor agonists use in overweight or obese adults with type 2 diabetes: a new‐user, active‐comparator cohort study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 28(1):197–209. Available from: https://dom-pubs.pericles-prod.literatumonline.com/doi/10.1111/dom.70175

Chauveau F, Winkeler A, Chalon S, Boutin H, Becker G (2025) PET imaging of neuroinflammation: any credible alternatives to TSPO yet? Mol Psychiatry. 30(1):213–28. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02656-9

Chen C, Chen C (2004) Searching for intellectual turning points: progressive knowledge domain visualization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 101(suppl_1):5303–10. Available from: https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0307513100

Chen H, Lu J, Zou T, Teng Z, Qin Y, Wu R, et al (2025) Effects of sulforaphane on negative symptoms and cognitive impairments in chronic schizophrenia patients: a randomized double-blind trial. J Psychiatr Res. 184:464–72. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022395625001773

Chiquita S, Rodrigues-Neves AC, Baptista FI, Carecho R, Moreira PI, Castelo-Branco M, et al (2019) The retina as a window or mirror of the brain changes detected in Alzheimer’s disease: critical aspects to unravel. Mol Neurobiol. 56(8):5416–35. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12035-018-1461-6

Craig JP, Nelson JD, Azar DT, Belmonte C, Bron AJ, Chauhan SK, et al (2017) TFOS DEWS II report executive summary. Ocul Surf. 15(4):802–12. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1542012417302148

Dantzer R, O’Connor JC, Freund GG, Johnson RW, Kelley KW (2008) From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 9(1):46–56. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2297

de Witte LD, Munk Laursen T, Corcoran CM, Kahn RS, Birnbaum R, Munk-Olsen T, et al (2023) A sex-dependent association between doxycycline use and development of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 49(4):953–61. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article/49/4/953/7069253

de Witte LD, Munk Laursen T, Corcoran CM, Munk-Olsen T, Bergink V (2024) Association between doxycycline use and long-term functioning in patients with schizophrenia. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 117:66–9. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S088915912300418X

Del Giudice M, Gangestad SW, Del Giudice M, Gangestad SW, Del Giudice M, Gangestad SW, et al (2018) Rethinking IL-6 and CRP: why they are more than inflammatory biomarkers, and why it matters. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 70:61–75. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0889159118300266

Dinarello CA (2000) Proinflammatory cytokines. Chest. 118(2):503–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001236921551814X

Donthu N, Kumar S, Mukherjee D, Pandey N, Lim WM (2021) How to conduct a bibliometric analysis: an overview and guidelines. J Bus Res. 133:285–96. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0148296321003155

Dos Reis RS, Selvam S, Ayyavoo V (2024) Neuroinflammation in post COVID‐19 sequelae: neuroinvasion and neuroimmune crosstalk. Rev Med Virol . 34(6):e70009. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rmv.70009

Dowlati Y, Herrmann N, Swardfager W, Liu H, Sham L, Reim EK, et al (2010) A meta-analysis of cytokines in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 67(5):446–57. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322309012293

Ebrahimi P, Batlle JC, Ayati A, Maqsood MH, Long C, Tarabanis C, et al (2025) Suicide and self-harm events with GLP-1 receptor agonists in adults with diabetes or obesity. JAMA Psychiatry. 82(9):888. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2831637

Erickson CA, Shaffer RC, Will M, Schmitt LM, Horn P, Hirst K, et al (2025) Brief report: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, proof-of-concept study of minocycline in autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 55(9):3387–94. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10803-023-06132-1

Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR (1975) Mini-mental state. J Psychiatr Res. 12(3):189–98. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0022395675900266

Fond G, Hamdani N, Kapczinski F, Boukouaci W, Drancourt N, Dargel A, et al (2014) Effectiveness and tolerance of anti‐inflammatory drugs’ add‐on therapy in major mental disorders: a systematic qualitative review. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 129(3):163–79. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.12211

Frontera JA, Simon NM (2022) Bridging knowledge gaps in the diagnosis and management of neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19. JAMA Psychiatry . 79(8):811. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2793903

Fu Y, Mao Y, Jiang S, Luo S, Chen X, Xiao W (2023) A bibliometric analysis of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in ophthalmology. Front Med. 10:1135592. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmed.2023.1135592/full

Galor A, Feuer W, Lee DJ, Florez H, Faler AL, Zann KL, et al (2012) Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and dry eye syndrome: a study utilizing the national United States Veterans Affairs administrative database. Am J Ophthalmol. 154(2):340–346.e2. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002939412001055

Gandy K, Scoggins MA, Jacola LM, Litten M, Reddick WE, Krull KR, et al (2021) Structural and functional brain imaging in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with chemotherapy: a systematic review. JNCI Cancer Spectr. 5(5):pkab069. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jncics/article/doi/10.1093/jncics/pkab069/6348175

Ganeshalingam AA, Uhrenholt N, Arnfred S, et al (2025) Semaglutide treatment of antipsychotic-treated patients with schizophrenia, prediabetes, and obesity: The HISTORI randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 82(11):1065-1074. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.2332

Ganguli R, Rabin BS, Belle SH (1989) Decreased interleukin-2 production in schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry. 26(4):427–30. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0006322389900619

Garfield E (2004) Historiographic mapping of knowledge domains literature. J Inf Sci. 30(2):119–45. Available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0165551504042802

Goldsmith DR, Rapaport MH, Miller BJ (2016) A meta-analysis of blood cytokine network alterations in psychiatric patients: comparisons between schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression. Mol Psychiatry. 21(12):1696–709. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/mp20163

Goodyear BG, Heidari F, Ingram RJM, Cortese F, Sharifi N, Kaplan GG, et al (2023) Multimodal brain MRI of deep gray matter changes associated with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 29(3):405–16. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ibdjournal/article/29/3/405/6589553

Graham F (2024) Daily briefing: COVID ‘brain fog’ linked to brain inflammation. Nature. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00881-4

Gray L, Hannan AJ (2007) Dissecting cause and effect in the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders: genes, environment and behaviour. Curr Mol Med. 7(5):470–8. Available from: http://www.eurekaselect.com/openurl/content.php?genre=article&issn=1566-5240&volume=7&issue=5&spage=470

Haapakoski R, Mathieu J, Ebmeier KP, Alenius H, Kivimäki M (2015) Cumulative meta-analysis of interleukins 6 and 1β, tumour necrosis factor α and C-reactive protein in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 49:206–15. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S088915911500152X

Hamilton M (1960) A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 23(1):56–62. Available from: https://jnnp.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/jnnp.23.1.56

Hanada T, Yoshimura A, Hanada T, Yoshimura A, Hanada T, Yoshimura A, et al (2002) Regulation of cytokine signaling and inflammation. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 13(4–5):413–21. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1359610102000266

Hannestad J, DellaGioia N, Bloch M (2011) The effect of antidepressant medication treatment on serum levels of inflammatory cytokines: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 36(12):2452–9. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/npp2011132

He W (2024) Regression analysis of GDP development of cities in China — taking Foshan and Fuzhou as examples. APEMR. 1(5):9–17. Available from: https://ojs.apspublisher.com/index.php/apemr/article/view/52

Heald AH, Reynolds G, Nash I, Boyle O, Daly C, Longson D, et al (2025) Obesity and schizophrenia: results of a feasibility study with semaglutide to assist weight loss. Adv Ther. 42(8):4013–22. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12325-025-03261-0

Hellmann-Regen J, Clemens V, Grözinger M, Kornhuber J, Reif A, Prvulovic D, et al (2022) Effect of minocycline on depressive symptoms in patients with treatment-resistant depression. JAMA Netw Open. 5(9):e2230367. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2796182

Hodes GE, Ménard C, Russo SJ, Hodes GE, Ménard C, Russo SJ, et al (2016) Integrating Interleukin-6 into depression diagnosis and treatment. Neurobiol Stress . 4:15–22. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352289515300461

Horváth S, Mirnics K, Horváth S, Mirnics K, Horváth S, Mirnics K, et al (2014) Immune system disturbances in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 75(4):316–23. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322313005817

Howren MB, Lamkin DM, Suls J (2009) Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 71(2):171–86. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/00006842-200902000-00006

Huang J, Chen A, Jin H, Liu F, Hei G, Teng Z, et al (2025) Efficacy and safety of sulforaphane added to antipsychotics for the treatment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry. 86(1):24m15272. Available from: https://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/efficacy-safety-sulforaphane-added-to-antipsychotics-for-negative-symptoms-schizophrenia/

Husain MI, Chaudhry IB, Khoso AB, Husain MO, Hodsoll J, Ansari MA, et al (2020) Minocycline and celecoxib as adjunctive treatments for bipolar depression: a multicentre, factorial design randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Psychiatry. 7(6):515–27. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2215036620301383

Jarskog LF, Hamer RM, Catellier DJ, Stewart DD, LaVange L, Ray N, et al (2013) Metformin for weight loss and metabolic control in overweight outpatients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 170(9):1032–40. Available from: https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12010127

Jiang H, Ling Z, Zhang Y, Mao H, Ma Z, Yin Y, et al (2015) Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 48:186–94. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0889159115001105

Jiao W, Lin J, Deng Y, Ji Y, Liang C, Wei S, et al (2025) The immunological perspective of major depressive disorder: unveiling the interactions between central and peripheral immune mechanisms. J Neuroinflamm. 22(1):10. Available from: https://jneuroinflammation.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12974-024-03312-3

Jorgensen A, Baago IB, Rygner Z, Jorgensen MB, Andersen PK, Kessing LV, et al (2022) Association of oxidative stress–induced nucleic acid damage with psychiatric disorders in adults. JAMA Psychiatry. 79(9):920. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2794931

Kany S, Vollrath JT, Relja B (2019) Cytokines in inflammatory disease. Int J Mol Sci. 20(23):6008. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/20/23/6008

Katila H, Hänninen K, Hurme M (1999) Polymorphisms of the interleukin-1 gene complex in schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry. 4(2):179–81. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/4000483

Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA (1987) The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 13(2):261–76. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/schbul/13.2.261

Khandaker GM, Pearson RM, Zammit S, Lewis G, Jones PB (2014) Association of serum interleukin 6 and C-reactive protein in childhood with depression and psychosis in young adult life. JAMA Psychiatry. 71(10):1121. Available from: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1332

Khandaker GM, Cousins L, Deakin J, Lennox BR, Yolken R, Jones PB, et al (2015) Inflammation and immunity in schizophrenia: implications for pathophysiology and treatment. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2(3):258–70. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2215036614001229

Kloiber S, Jones BDM, Hodsoll J, Chaudhry IB, Khoso AB, Husain MO, et al (2022) Metabolic function in patients with bipolar depression receiving anti-inflammatory agents: findings from the MINDCARE study, a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. J Affect Disord. 299:135–41. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032721012507

Köhler O, Benros ME, Nordentoft M, Farkouh ME, Iyengar RL, Mors O, et al (2014) Effect of anti-inflammatory treatment on depression, depressive symptoms, and adverse effects. JAMA Psychiatry. 71(12):1381. Available from: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1611

Köhler CA, Freitas TH, Maes M, de Andrade NQ, Liu CS, Fernandes BS, et al (2017) Peripheral cytokine and chemokine alterations in depression: a meta‐analysis of 82 studies. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 135(5):373–87. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.12698

Kornelius E, Huang JY, Lo SC, Huang CN, Yang YS (2024) The risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidal behavior in patients with obesity on glucagon like peptide-1 receptor agonist therapy. Sci Rep. 14(1):24433. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-75965-2

Kreisl WC, Kim MJ, Coughlin JM, Henter ID, Owen DR, Innis RB (2020) PET imaging of neuroinflammation in neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol. 19(11):940–50. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S147444222030346X

Lång U, Metsälä J, Ramsay H, et al (2025) Doxycycline use in adolescent psychiatric patients and risk of schizophrenia: an emulated target trial. Am J Psychiatry. Available from: https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.20240958

Legenbauer T, Kirschbaum-Lesch I, Jörke C, Kölch M, Reis O, Berger C, et al (2024) Bright light therapy as add-on to inpatient treatment in youth with moderate to severe depression. JAMA Psychiatry. 81(7):655. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2816353

Lemprière S (2022) Inflammation links mild COVID-19 with long-term cognitive impairment. Nat Rev Neurol 18(8):453–453

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li JR, Cao J, Wei J, Geng W (2023) Case report: Semaglutide-associated depression: a report of two cases. Front Psychiatry. 14:1238353. Available from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1238353/full

Liu Y, Ho RCM, Mak A (2012) Interleukin (IL)-6, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and soluble interleukin-2 receptors (sIL-2R) are elevated in patients with major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. J Affect Disord. 139(3):230–9. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032711004605

Lohela TJ, Lilius TO, Nedergaard M, Lohela TJ, Lilius TO, Nedergaard M (2022) The glymphatic system: implications for drugs for central nervous system diseases. Nat Rev Drug Discovery. 21(10):763–79. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41573-022-00500-9

Madison AA, Bailey MT (2024) Stressed to the core: inflammation and intestinal permeability link stress-related gut microbiota shifts to mental health outcomes. Biol Psychiatry. 95(4):339–47. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322323016591

Mazza MG, De Lorenzo R, Conte C, Poletti S, Vai B, Bollettini I, et al (2020) Anxiety and depression in COVID-19 survivors: role of inflammatory and clinical predictors. Nature. 89:594–600. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00881-4

McIntyre RS, Subramaniapillai M, Lee Y, Pan Z, Carmona NE, Shekotikhina M, et al (2018a) Antidepressant activity of anti-cytokine treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials of chronic inflammatory conditions. Mol Psychiatry. 23(2):335–43. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2016167

McIntyre RS, Subramaniapillai M, Lee Y, Pan Z, Carmona NE, Shekotikhina M, et al (2018b) Efficacy of adjunctive infliximab vs placebo in the treatment of adults with bipolar I/II depression. Mol Psychiatry. 76(8):783. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/mp2016167

Meyer JH, Cervenka S, Kim MJ, Kreisl WC, Henter ID, Innis RB (2020) Neuroinflammation in psychiatric disorders: PET imaging and promising new targets. The Lancet Psychiatry. 7(12):1064–74. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2215036620302558

Miller BJ, Buckley P, Seabolt W, Mellor A, Kirkpatrick B (2011) Meta-analysis of cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: clinical status and antipsychotic effects. Biol Psychiatry. 70(7):663–71. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322311004045

Miller AH, Maletic V, Raison CL (2009) Inflammation and its discontents: the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 65(9):732–41. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006322308015321

Miller AH, Raison CL (2016) The role of inflammation in depression: from evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nat Rev Immunol. 16(1):22–34. Available from:

Comments (0)

No login
gif