Gadhave DG, Sugandhi VV, Jha SK, Nangare SN, Gupta G, Singh SK, et al. Neurodegenerative disorders: mechanisms of degeneration and therapeutic approaches with their clinical relevance. Ageing Res Rev. 2024;99:102357.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Adamu A, Li S, Gao F, Xue G. The role of neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases: current understanding and future therapeutic targets. Front Aging Neurosci. 2024;16:1347987.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gao C, Jiang J, Tan Y, Chen S. Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1):359.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Boavista Barros Heil L, Leme SP, Ferreira CF, Pelosi P, Rieken Macedo RP. Immunomodulatory effects of anesthetic agents in perioperative medicine. Minerva Anestesiol. 2020;86(2):181–95.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Senoner T, Velik-Salchner C, Luckner G, Tauber H. Anesthesia-induced oxidative stress: are there differences between intravenous and inhaled anesthetics? Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021;2021(1):8782387.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alharbi KS, Almalki WH, Alzarea SI, Kazmi I, Al-Abbasi FA, Afzal O, et al. Anaesthesia-induced changes in genomic expression leading to neurodegeneration. CNS Neurol Disord Targets-cns Neurol Disord. 2024;23(4):411–9.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Yuki K, Eckenhoff RG. Mechanisms of the immunological effects of volatile anesthetics: a review. Anesth Analg. 2016;123(2):326–35.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang K, Wang Y, Zhang T, Chang B, Fu D, Chen X. The role of intravenous anesthetics for neuro: protection or toxicity? Neurosci Bull. 2025;41(1):107–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tawfik G‑A, Lu M, De La Hoz Crugnola Jin Moller MWZD. Molecular and clinical considerations for anesthesia in the aging brain. IJMS. 2025;26(21):10272.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lee SH, Hyung WSW, Seo S, Kim J, Han C, Choi KY, et al. The risk of dementia after anesthesia differs according to the mode of anesthesia and individual anesthetic agent. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2025;23(1):65–75.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Spires-Jones TL, Attems J, Thal DR. Interactions of pathological proteins in neurodegenerative diseases. Acta Neuropathol. 2017;134(2):187–205.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhang S, Gao Z, Feng L, Li M. Prevention and treatment strategies for alzheimer’s disease: focusing on microglia and astrocytes in neuroinflammation. J Inflamm Res. 2024; 7235–59.

Castro-Gomez S, Heneka MT. Innate immune activation in neurodegenerative diseases. Immunity. 2024;57(4):790–814.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kuntić M, Hahad O, Münzel T, Daiber A. Crosstalk between oxidative stress and inflammation caused by noise and air pollution—implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Antioxidants. 2024;13(3):266.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blanch RL. Inhibition of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation as a novel treatment of als. Universitat de València; 2024.

Google Scholar 

Guo S, Wang H, Yin Y. Microglia polarization from M1 to M2 in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:815347.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wolfe CM, Fitz NF, Nam KN, Lefterov I, Koldamova R. The role of APOE and TREM2 in alzheimer’ s disease—current understanding and perspectives. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;20(1):81.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Santiago-Balmaseda A, Aguirre-Orozco A, Valenzuela-Arzeta IE, Villegas-Rojas MM, Pérez-Segura I, Jiménez-Barrios N, et al. Neurodegenerative diseases: unraveling the heterogeneity of astrocytes. Cells. 2024;13(11):921.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beltran-Velasco AI, Clemente-Suárez VJ. Impact of peripheral inflammation on blood–brain barrier dysfunction and its role in neurodegenerative diseases. IJMS. 2025;26(6):2440.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khan Z, Mehan S, Gupta GD, Narula AS. Immune system dysregulation in the progression of multiple sclerosis: molecular insights and therapeutic implications. Neuroscience. 2024;548:9–26.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garofalo S, Cocozza G, Porzia A, Inghilleri M, Raspa M, Scavizzi F, et al. Natural killer cells modulate motor neuron-immune cell cross talk in models of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1773.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Harkins AL, Kopec AL, Keeler AM. Regulatory T cell therapeutics for Neuroinflammatory disorders. Crit Rev Immunol. 2022;42(2):1–27.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kumari S, Dhapola R, Sharma P, Singh SK, Reddy DH. Implicative role of cytokines in neuroinflammation mediated AD and associated signaling pathways: current progress in molecular signaling and therapeutics. Ageing Res Rev. 2023;92:102098.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Abou Izzeddine N, Ahmad K, Bacha C, Jabbour M, Najjar M, Salhab S, et al. The microbial guardians: Unveiling the role of gut microbiota in shaping neurodegenerative disease. IBRO Neurosci Reports. 2025;19:17–37.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Chia SJ, Tan EK, Chao YX. Historical Perspective: Models of Parkinson’s Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(7).

Liu L, Huh JR, Shah K. Microbiota and the gut-brain-axis: Implications for new therapeutic design in the CNS. EBioMedicine. 2022;77:103908.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kulski JK, Suzuki S, Shiina T, Pfaff AL, Kõks S. Regulatory SVA retrotransposons and classical HLA genotyped-transcripts associated with parkinson’s disease. Front Immunol. 2024;15:1349030.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhao Z, Ning J, Bao XQ, Shang M, Ma J, Li G, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation protects rotenone-induced parkinson’s disease mice via suppressing inflammation mediated by the lipopolysaccharide-TLR4 signaling pathway through the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Microbiome. 2021;9(1):226.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shastri A, Bonifati DM, Kishore U. Innate immunity and neuroinflammation. Mediators Inflamm. 2013;2013:342931.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen Y, Ye X, Escames G, Lei W, Zhang X, Li M, et al. The NLRP3 inflammasome: contributions to inflammation-related diseases. Cell Mol Biol Lett. 2023;28(1):51.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Han C, Yang Y, Guan Q, Zhang X, Shen H, Sheng Y, et al. New mechanism of nerve injury in alzheimer’s disease: β‑amyloid-induced neuronal pyroptosis. J Cell Mol Med. 2020;24(14):8078–90.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Anderson FL, Biggs KE, Rankin BE, Havrda MC. NLRP3 inflammasome in neurodegenerative disease. Transl Res. 2023;252:21–33.

Article  CAS