Ndumele CE, Rangaswami J, Chow SL, et al. Cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic health: A presidential advisory from the american heart association. Circulation. 2023;148(20):1606–35.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ndumele CE, Neeland IJ, Tuttle KR, et al. A synopsis of the evidence for the science and clinical management of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic (CKM) syndrome: A scientific statement from the American heart association. Circulation. 2023;148(20):1636–64.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen Y, Wu X, Long T, et al. Prevalence and mortality association of different stages of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome. JACC Adv. 2025;4(6 Pt 2):101843.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lei L, Li J, Ding W, et al. Associations of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome with premature mortality and life expectancies in US adults: A cohort study. Cardiorenal Med. 2025;15(1):484–95.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Baker-Smith CM, Gauen AM, Petito LC, Khan SS, Allen NB. Prevalence of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic stages in US adolescents and relationship to social determinants of health. J Am Heart Assoc. 2025;14(10):e040269.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aggarwal R, Ostrominski JW, Vaduganathan M. Prevalence of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome stages in US adults, 2011–2020. JAMA. 2024;331(21):1858–60.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Arnold SV, Kosiborod M, Wang J, Fenici P, Gannedahl G, LoCasale RJ. Burden of cardio-renal-metabolic conditions in adults with type 2 diabetes within the Diabetes Collaborative Registry. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018;20(8):2000–3.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

South A, Baker-Smith C, Campbell J, et al. Abstract 4142830: High prevalence of cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome and lack of sex disparities in youth referred for hypertension disorders: A SUPERHERO Analysis. Circulation. 2024;150(Suppl1):A4142830–4142830.

Google Scholar 

Alexander BT, South AM, August P, et al. Appraising the preclinical evidence of the role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in antenatal programming of maternal and offspring cardiovascular health across the life course: Moving the field forward: A scientific statement from the American heart association. Hypertension. 2023;80(5):e75–89.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tain YL, Lin YJ, Hsu CN. Breastfeeding and future cardiovascular, kidney, and metabolic health-a narrative review. Nutrients 2025;17(6):1–23.

South AM, Allen NB. Antenatal programming of hypertension: Paradigms, paradoxes, and how we move forward. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2022;24(12):655–67.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhen H, Chen L, Hao X, et al. Maternal blood pressure during pregnancy and children’s cardiometabolic function: A birth cohort study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2025;35(11):104153.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tzvi-Behr S, Greenstein LB, Ben-Shalom E, Frishberg Y, Cohen SO. Associations between prematurity, birthweight, and adolescence blood pressure in a nationwide cohort. Kidney Int Rep. 2024;9(5):1228–35.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mayo SF, Schaich CL, South AM, Shaltout HA. Arterial stiffness in young adults with very low birth weight: Modified by gestational age. Am J Hypertens. 2025;38(12):1136–43.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zhou J, Qin G. Adipocyte dysfunction and hypertension. Am J Cardiovasc Dis. 2012;2(2):143–9.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Młynarska E, Bojdo K, Frankenstein H et al. Endothelial dysfunction as the common pathway linking obesity, hypertension and atherosclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2025;26(20):1–34.

Schütten MT, Houben AJ, de Leeuw PW, Stehouwer CD. The link between adipose tissue renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system signaling and obesity-associated hypertension. Physiol (Bethesda). 2017;32(3):197–209.

Google Scholar 

DeLalio LJ, Sved AF, Stocker SD. Sympathetic nervous system contributions to hypertension: Updates and therapeutic relevance. Can J Cardiol. 2020;36(5):712–20.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Iqbal K, Chatziangelousi E, Wolters M, et al. Reference curves for metabolic syndrome indicators in children and adolescents: A global systematic review. Curr Obes Rep. 2026;15(1):3.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sebastian SA, Padda I, Johal G. Cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic (CKM) syndrome: A state-of-the-art review. Curr Probl Cardiol. 2024;49(2):102344.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Whaley-Connell A, Sowers JR. Oxidative stress in the cardiorenal metabolic syndrome. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2012;14(4):360–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tain YL, Hsu CN. The renin-angiotensin system and cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome: Focus on early-life programming. Int J Mol Sci 2024;25(6) : 1-19.

Robinson CH, Hussain J, Jeyakumar N, et al. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes in children and adolescents with hypertension. JAMA Pediatr. 2024;178(7):688–98.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ghazi L, Dubal M, Bertoni A, et al. Role of hypertension in the cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome among black adults: The Jackson Heart Study. J Hum Hypertens. 2025;39(12):822–30.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Guo X, Zhou S, Mu J, et al. Intensive blood pressure control and cardiovascular outcomes across cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome stages: A post hoc analysis of the China rural hypertension control project. JAMA Netw Open. 2026;9(2):e2557180.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kula AJ, Bartlett D. Cardiorenal syndrome: evolving concepts and pediatric knowledge gaps. Pediatr Nephrol. 2025;40(3):651–60.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rybi Szumińska A, Wasilewska A, Kamianowska M. Protein biomarkers in chronic kidney disease in children-what do we know so far? J Clin Med 2023;12(12):1–21.

Xu J, Wang P, Yao B, Dong Y, Zhou S, Yan X. The urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio is associated with advanced cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome stages and mortality: an analysis of NHANES 1999–2018. J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2026;25(1):63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Greene T, et al. Factors other than glomerular filtration rate affect serum cystatin C levels. Kidney Int. 2009;75(6):652–60.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jiang L, Tang K, Magee LA, et al. A global view of hypertensive disorders and diabetes mellitus during pregnancy. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2022;18(12):760–75.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rice MM, Landon MB, Varner MW, et al. Pregnancy-associated hypertension and offspring cardiometabolic health. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(2):313–21.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Atlas SA. The renin-angiotensin aldosterone system: pathophysiological role and pharmacologic inhibition. J Manag Care Pharm. 2007;13(8 Suppl B):9–20.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Godfrey KM, Barker DJ. Fetal programming and adult health. Public Health Nutr. 2001;4(2b):611–24.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Flynn JT, Kaelber DC, Baker-Smith CM et al. Clinical practice guideline for screening and management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2017;140(3):1–72.

Miyashita Y, Hanevold C, Faino A, et al. White coat hypertension persistence in children and adolescents: The pediatric nephrology research consortium study. J Pediatr. 2022;246:154–e160151.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Akubo C, Washington IE, Song S, et al. DASH diet adherence and cardiovascular-kidney metabolic syndrome stages: National health and nutrition examination survey 2011–2020. JACC Adv. 2025;4(6 Pt 2):101795.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shahid I, Philip J, Avenatti E, et al. Lifestyle interventions in cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome JACC: Advances Expert Panel. JACC Adv. 2025;4(6 Pt 2):101788.