National Cancer Institute. Cancer Stat Facts: Kidney and Renal Pelvis Cancer [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute; [cited 2026 March 17]. Available from: https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/kidrp.html

American Joint Commission on Cancer. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th Edition ed. Amin MB, Edge, S., Greene, F., Byrd, D.R., Brookland, R.K., Washington, M.K., Gershenwald, J.E., Compton, C.C., Hess, K.R., Sullivan, D.C., Jessup, J.M., Brierley, J.D., Gaspar, L.E., Schilsky, R.L., Balch, C.M., editor: Springer International Publishing; 2017.

Lee CH, Kang M, Kwak C, Ko YH, Kim JK, Park JY, et al. Sites of Metastasis and Survival in Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma: Results From the Korean Renal Cancer Study Group Database. J Korean Med Sci. 2024;39(45):e293.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bianchi M, Sun M, Jeldres C, Shariat SF, Trinh QD, Briganti A, et al. Distribution of metastatic sites in renal cell carcinoma: a population-based analysis. Annals of oncology: official journal of the European Society for Medical Oncology. 2012;23(4):973–80.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shao N, Wang HK, Zhu Y, Ye DW. Modification of American Joint Committee on cancer prognostic groups for renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Med. 2018;7(11):5431–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dudani S, de Velasco G, Wells JC, Gan CL, Donskov F, Porta C, et al. Evaluation of Clear Cell, Papillary, and Chromophobe Renal Cell Carcinoma Metastasis Sites and Association With Survival. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2021869.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Campbell SC, Clark PE, Chang SS, Karam JA, Souter L, Uzzo RG. Renal Mass and Localized Renal Cancer: Evaluation, Management, and Follow-Up: AUA Guideline: Part I. J Urol. 2021;206(2):199–208.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bex A, Ghanem YA, Albiges L, Bonn S, Campi R, Capitanio U, et al. European Association of Urology Guidelines on Renal Cell Carcinoma: The 2025 Update. Eur Urol. 2025;87(6):683–96.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vig SVL, Zan E, Kang SK. Imaging for Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma. Urol Clin North Am. 2020;47(3):281–91.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Larcher A, Dell’Oglio P, Fossati N, Nini A, Muttin F, Suardi N, et al. When to perform preoperative chest computed tomography for renal cancer staging. BJU Int. 2017;120(4):490–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thompson RH, Hill JR, Babayev Y, Cronin A, Kaag M, Kundu S, et al. Metastatic renal cell carcinoma risk according to tumor size. J Urol. 2009;182(1):41–5.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zagoria RJ, Pettus JA, Rogers M, Werle DM, Childs D, Leyendecker JR. Long-term outcomes after percutaneous radiofrequency ablation for renal cell carcinoma. Urology. 2011;77(6):1393–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Elkassem AA, Allen BC, Sharbidre KG, Rais-Bahrami S, Smith AD. Update on the Role of Imaging in Clinical Staging and Restaging of Renal Cell Carcinoma Based on the AJCC 8th Edition, From the AJR Special Series on Cancer Staging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2021;217(3):541–55.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim JH, Park KJ, Kim MH, Kim JK. Preoperative Assessment of Renal Sinus Invasion by Renal Cell Carcinoma according to Tumor Complexity and Imaging Features in Patients Undergoing Radical Nephrectomy. Korean J Radiol. 2021;22(8):1323–31.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kutikov A, Uzzo RG. The R.E.N.A.L. nephrometry score: a comprehensive standardized system for quantitating renal tumor size, location and depth. J Urol. 2009;182(3):844–53.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Taneja K, Arora S, Rogers CG, Gupta NS, Williamson SR. Pathological staging of renal cell carcinoma: a review of 300 consecutive cases with emphasis on retrograde venous invasion. Histopathology. 2018;73(4):681–91.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zisman A, Wieder JA, Pantuck AJ, Chao DH, Dorey F, Said JW, et al. Renal cell carcinoma with tumor thrombus extension: biology, role of nephrectomy and response to immunotherapy. J Urol. 2003;169(3):909–16.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reese AC, Whitson JM, Meng MV. Natural history of untreated renal cell carcinoma with venous tumor thrombus. Urol Oncol. 2013;31(7):1305–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hutchinson R, Rew C, Chen G, Woldu S, Krabbe LM, Meissner M, et al. The Adverse Survival Implications of Bland Thrombus in Renal Cell Carcinoma With Venous Tumor Thrombus. Urology. 2018;115:119–24.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Davenport MS, Hu EM, Smith AD, Chandarana H, Hafez K, Palapattu GS, et al. Reporting standards for the imaging-based diagnosis of renal masses on CT and MRI: a national survey of academic abdominal radiologists and urologists. Abdom Radiol (NY). 2017;42(4):1229–40.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abel EJ, Wood CG, Eickstaedt N, Fang JE, Kenney P, Bagrodia A, et al. Preoperative pulmonary embolism does not predict poor postoperative outcomes in patients with renal cell carcinoma and venous thrombus. J Urol. 2013;190(2):452–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Blute ML, Leibovich BC, Lohse CM, Cheville JC, Zincke H. The Mayo Clinic experience with surgical management, complications and outcome for patients with renal cell carcinoma and venous tumour thrombus. BJU Int. 2004;94(1):33–41.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lawindy SM, Kurian T, Kim T, Mangar D, Armstrong PA, Alsina AE, et al. Important surgical considerations in the management of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) with inferior vena cava (IVC) tumour thrombus. BJU Int. 2012;110(7):926–39.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Boorjian SA, Sengupta S, Blute ML. Renal cell carcinoma: vena caval involvement. BJU Int. 2007;99(5 Pt B):1239–44.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hallscheidt PJ, Fink C, Haferkamp A, Bock M, Luburic A, Zuna I, et al. Preoperative staging of renal cell carcinoma with inferior vena cava thrombus using multidetector CT and MRI: prospective study with histopathological correlation. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2005;29(1):64–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zini L, Destrieux-Garnier L, Leroy X, Villers A, Haulon S, Lemaitre L, et al. Renal vein ostium wall invasion of renal cell carcinoma with an inferior vena cava tumor thrombus: prediction by renal and vena caval vein diameters and prognostic significance. J Urol. 2008;179(2):450–4; discussion 4.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smith RK, Navaratnam A, Vivian P. Systematic review and meta-analysis of preoperative imaging prediction of renal cell carcinoma tumour thrombus inferior vena cava wall invasion. Clin Radiol. 2023;78(7):540–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aslam Sohaib SA, Teh J, Nargund VH, Lumley JS, Hendry WF, Reznek RH. Assessment of tumor invasion of the vena caval wall in renal cell carcinoma cases by magnetic resonance imaging. J Urol. 2002;167(3):1271–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Adams LC, Ralla B, Bender YY, Bressem K, Hamm B, Busch J, et al. Renal cell carcinoma with venous extension: prediction of inferior vena cava wall invasion by MRI. Cancer Imaging. 2018;18(1):17.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alayed A, Krishna S, Breau RH, Currin S, Flood TA, Narayanasamy S, et al. Diagnostic Accuracy of MRI for Detecting Inferior Vena Cava Wall Invasion in Renal Cell Carcinoma Tumor Thrombus Using Quantitative and Subjective Analysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2019;212(3):562–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reznek RH. CT/MRI in staging renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Imaging. 2004;4 Spec No A(Spec No A):S25-32.

Abou Elkassem AM, Lo SS, Gunn AJ, Shuch BM, Dewitt-Foy ME, Abouassaly R, et al. Role of Imaging in Renal Cell Carcinoma: A Multidisciplinary Perspective. Radiographics. 2021;41(5):1387–407.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Margulis V, Sánchez-Ortiz RF, Tamboli P, Cohen DD, Swanson DA, Wood CG. Renal cell carcinoma clinically involving adjacent organs: experience with aggressive surgical management. Cancer. 2007;109(10):2025–30.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tadayoni A, Paschall AK, Malayeri AA. Assessing lymph node status in patients with kidney cancer. Transl Androl Urol. 2018;7(5):766–73.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Studer UE, Scherz S, Scheidegger J, Kraft R, Sonntag R, Ackermann D, et al. Enlargement of regional lymph nodes in renal cell carcinoma is often not due to metastases. J Urol. 1990;144(2 Pt 1):243–