Edible plant diversity

We found a total of 820 edible plants records for 119 species belonging to 82 genera and 41 families from 11 agroecosystems in the community (Appendix). The most diverse genera are Opuntia (seven species), Prunus (five), and Solanum (five). The families more represented are Solanaceae (13 species, 11%), Rosaceae (11, 9.2%), Cactaceae (eight, 6.7%), and Asteraceae (seven, 5.9%) (Fig. 2). Nearly 60% of the species used in the community are native to Mexico, and ca. 40% were introduced but culturally assimilated since they arrived with the Spaniards from the sixteenth century, due to their gastronomic importance (Table 1). Unfortunately we found no records for the species introduction to the Ñäñho communities.

Fig. 2

Edible plant species by family. In addition to those shown in the figure, 18 families had only one edible species (see the species list in the Appendix)

Table 1 Origin of the edible plants in the biocultural landscape of San Miguel Tlaxcaltepec, Amealco, Querétaro

During the interviews and tours, 196 herbarium specimens and 188 seed accessions were collected and photographed.

Plant names in the Ñäñho language

From the 820 records, a list was compiled of 270 common names in Spanish and Hñäñho was compiled. Since most of the speakers were over 60 years old (Fig. 3), when asked for the specific names of the plants, many mentioned that they knew them many years ago, but because they do not have anyone to practice their language with, they have forgotten them. The corresponding names of some plants are provided in the Appendix.

Fig. 3

Interviews with the people of San Miguel Tlaxcaltepec

Agroecosystems scenarios of the food plants origin

People obtain their edible plants from 11 agroecosystems: stream banks, mountain hills, orchards, rustic greenhouses, plains or pastures, springs or wells, home “milpa,” ejidal “milpa,” “nopaleras” (group of Opuntia spp. individuals), plots around the dam, and backyards or gardens (Fig. 4 and Table 2). Some species occur in more than one agroecosystem (Fig. 5). Most species are found in the orchard (14 spp.), the rustic greenhouse (13), the home “milpa” (12), and the mountain hill (11). This includes those that occurred only in each specific agroecosystem.

Fig. 4

Agroecosystems for the edible plant species in the community of San Miguel Tlaxcaltepec, Amealco, Queretaro. a Stream bank (“bancos de arroyo”), b mountain hill (“cerro”), c orchard (“huerto”), d rustic greenhouse (“invernadero rústico”), e plain/pasture (“llano”), f spring or well (“manantial/pozo”), g and h house “milpa” (“milpa de casa”), i ejido “milpa” (“milpa de ejido”), j group of prickly pear cactus, Opuntia spp. (“nopalera), k backyard (“traspatio”), and l plots around the dam (“parcelas de la presa”)

Table 2 General characteristics of the 11 agroecosystems (alphabetical order) mentioned by the respondentsFig. 5

Number of edible plant species identified by agroecosystem (B = Backyard, D = Dam plots, EM = Ejidal “milpa,” G = Greenhouse, H = Mountain hill, HM = Home “milpa,” N = “Nopaleras,” O = Orchard, P = Plain). In addition to what is shown in the graph, there are two agroecosystems (stream bank and “nopaleras”), and 11 combinations of agroecosystems with only one species recorded

Edible plant management

The management categories for the edible plant species are (a) gathered or collected, (b) tolerated, (c) promoted, (d) transplanted, and (e) sown or planted (Table 3). The gathered category had 31 species, but when we consider the species gathered also in another category, the number increases to 57 species (49% of the total). This is because some species are managed in more than one way. The agroecosystems with the highest number of gathered plants are the hill, the home “milpa,” and the backyard (Fig. 6).

Table 3 Managed edible plant species in SMT, based on the classification of management types proposed by Casas et al. [5]Fig. 6

Number of sowed or planted edible plant species managed by agroecosystem (B = Backyard, D = Dam plots, EM = Ejidal “milpa,” G = Greenhouse, H = Mountain hill, HM = Home “milpa,” N = “Nopaleras,” O = Orchard). In addition to the graph, seven combinations of agroecosystems have just one species

The management type "sown or planted" was the most common with 58 species (49% of the total). However, when another type of management is present in addition to seeding or planting, the number increases to 67 species, or 56% of the total. The greenhouse, the orchard, and the backyard are the biocultural landscapes where the highest number of edible plant species is sown or planted (Fig. 6).

The management types of analysis, based on the origin of the edible species, show that among the native species, 38.6% are exclusively gathered or collected. However, for those collected and managed in another way, the percentage increases to 67.2% (Table 3). The sown or planted species represent 81.3% of the introduced species, while the gathered species (6.3%), and other managed types have lower percentages (Table 3).

Consumed parts of the edible plants

Fruits are the most consumed plant part (72 spp., 60.5%), followed by stems, including modified stems such as the potato tubers (55, 46.2%), then flowers, (43 spp., 36.1%), and leaves (41 spp., 34.5%). Smaller percentages correspond to roots (six spp., 5%), stem sap (six spp., 5%), and flower nectar (two spp., 1.7%) (Fig. 7). The total percentage of consumed parts exceeds 100% because different parts of some species are used at the same time, e.g., in the “laurel” (Litsea glaucescens Kunth) and some “quelites,” where the entire aerial part is used (leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds). “Quelites” are eaten before flowering for a better taste and texture. This is also true for the two nectar species, the “trompetilla” (Bouvardia terniflora (Cav.) Schltdl.) and the “espinosilla” (Loeselia Mexicana (Lam.) Brand), which grow as ruderals and are most commonly consumed during walks and fieldwork. In both species, a portion of the entire corolla is consumed when extracting the nectar. Another example is the “dalia” (Dahlia coccinea Cav.), and its tuber or “jicama” (root) is eaten, but petals were sometimes added to increase the volume of corn dough for “tortillas” or provide color.

Fig. 7

Percentages of the consumed parts of the 119 edible plant species recorded in the community of SMT

Multiple part plans used on the same species were recorded. Then, 55 species (46.2%) of the species had only one part used, 30 (25.2%) provided two useful parts, 22 (18.5%) three parts, and 11 species (9.2%) four parts (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Number (percentage) of the consumed plant structures

Gastronomic categories and consumption forms

The consumption categories and forms mentioned by the informants, as well as the percentages based on the species numbers, are shown in Fig. 9. The highest percentages were stews, followed by beverages, snacks, and fruits. In addition, the gastronomic categories with the greatest diversity are “nopales” (Opuntia spp.), corn (Zea mays L.), and amaranth (Amaranthus spp.).

Fig. 9

Some of the species consumed raw as a snack during working days in the fields or mountain hills. a Oak gall or "panchihuas" or "lulitos" (Quercus spp.), b colibrí flower or “espinocilla” (Loeselia mexicana), c prickly pears of "nopal bondó" (Opuntia robusta), d prickly pear of "nopal chamacuero" (Opuntia tomentosa), e white prickly pears (Opuntia sp.) and "tuna hartona" (O. streptacantha)

Snacks

This category refers to plants generally eaten raw during daily walks or during fieldwork. It is important to note that this category includes the consumption of four parts of the plant in different species such as roots, flowers (petals), and nectar, as well as specialized structures such as some oaks galls or "panchihuas" (Quercus spp.) (Fig. 9).

The “mountain dalias" (Dahlia coccinea) tuberous roots are called "jícamas" and are eaten as soon as they have been dug up, and removing the outer skin, called "cascarita." The water they contain is sucked, and the pulp is squeezed out, similar to the way juice is extracted from maize stalks. The long narrow roots of the "jícama de puerco" (Cologania angustifolia Kunth) and the "jicamita" (Macroptilium gibbosifolium (Ortega) A. Delgado) are consumed the same way. The raw consumption of a species called "liendre" has been recorded. It has small underground bulbs that resemble tiny coconuts called “cocomites.” We were not able to identify the plant, but because of the bulbs name, it is possibly a species of the genus Tigridia.

Other species in this category are two that are consumed for the flower nectar because they are "sweet" (Bouvardia terniflora and Loeselia mexicana). The "panchihuas" or "lulitos" (oak trees galls from the branches and leaves) are eaten raw but must be "green," or unripe to be edible. In this state, they have an apple-like flavor.

Although some tree species such as the “capulin” (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) and the “tejocote” (Crataegus mexicana DC.) are also eaten as snacks, they are included in the fruit category. The same applies to the "talayotes" or "puerquitos" (Matelea pedulculata (Decne.)), which grow in the plains. They can be eaten raw as a snack only if they are unripe. Otherwise, they need to be fried or roasted before consumption.

For prickly pears (“tunas”) it is important to know how to pick them without getting pricked by the thorns. Some “tunas” are sweeter than others. Also, some produce more seeds, some have more water, and some taste sour, but all the “tunas” from any “nopal” are edible and appreciated. Seven species of the genus Opuntia were recorded, six of which have edible fruits consumed as snacks: O. lasiacantha Pfeiff., O. robusta H.L.Wendl. ex Pfeiff, O. tomentosa Salm-Dyck, O. hyptiacantha F.A.C. Weber, O. streptacantha Lem., and O. joconostle F.A.C. Weber ex Diguet (Fig. 9). The last species, known as "coconoxtle," is found in the hills where people collect firewood. The fruit is usually eaten with added salt.

Beverages

Two traditional fermented beverages recorded in the region are in danger of disappearing, because few people know how to prepare them: “colonche” and “sendichó or senditó.” The former is made with the prickly pear variety known as "sangre de toro" (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.), which was found in the backyard of one of the interviewees but not elsewhere. The latter is a fermented maize beverage made from sprouted seeds and consumed during feasts and celebrations.

The daily use of infusions for pleasure in the absence of illness was recorded. These include the consumption of eight species: "muicle" or "muitle" (Justicia spicigera Schltdl.), elderflower (Sambucus mexicana C.Presl ex DC.), “pericón” (Tagetes lucida Cav.), “anís de monte” (Tagetes filifolia Lag.), “tejocote” (Crataegus mexicana-), “naranjo” (Citrus × aurantium f. aurantium), “ortiga” (Urtica sp.), “cedrón” (Aloysia citrodora Paláu), and "tlachicote" or mountain tea (Clinopodium macrostemum (Moc. & Sessé ex Benth.) Kuntze). The latter was used as a morning decoction before coffee and became popular in the community. Another interesting beverage is the "granada de guía" or "platanito" (Passiflora tripartita (Juss.) Poir.), whose fruit is sometimes eaten raw, but because of its sour taste, it is preferably consumed in fresh water with a little sugar (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10

On the left, herbarium specimen of "tlachicote" or mountain tea (Clinopodium macrostemum) collected in a backyard from an original plant found on a mountain hill in the neighborhood of Ojo de Agua, San Miguel Tlaxcaltepec. On the right, "granada de guía" or "platanito" (Passiflora tripartita) collected in an orchard in Chitejé de Garabato, SMT

“Quelites” (edible wild greens)

At least seven species have been identified as “quelites” (Fig. 11). Those belonging to the genus Amaranthus are eaten before flowering, because the taste becomes unpleasant. "nabo quelite" (Brassica rapa L.) stems acquire a sweet taste when roasted ("sweated"). Some “quelites” such as "hyadi k’ani" (sun “quelite”), "mal casada" (“badly married”), or "burro quelite" (Tauschia nudicaulis Schltdl.) grow either in the rainy season or in the dry season, and can be eaten with their flowers. Some “quelites” such as "patitas de pájaro" or "chivitas" (Calandrinia ciliata (Ruiz & Pav.) DC.) are eaten raw, as a salad with added lemon. Most of them are boiled and cooked with onion, garlic, and some sauce, and eaten in maize tortilla tacos.

Fig. 11

“Quelites” from San Miguel Tlaxcaltepec. a purslane (Portulaca oleracea), b white goosefoot (Chenopodium berlandieri), c watercress (Nasturtium officinale), d wild borage (Sonchus oleraceus), e common mallow (Malva parviflora), f "patita de pájaro" or "chivitas" (Calandrinia ciliata), and g "quelite de burro" (Tauschia nudicaulis)

Sweets/desserts

This category includes species used in the preparation of various preserves such as syrups of figs (Ficus carica L.), pears (Pyrus communis L.), apples (Malus domestica (Suckow) Borkh.), black cherries (Prunus serotina), and quince (Cydonia oblonga Mill.). It also includes syrup elderberry jam (Sambucus mexicana), compotes, and desserts made with piloncillo (unrefined whole cane sugar) and pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.), chilacayota (Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché), tejocote (Crataegus mexicana DC.), or amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) delicacies.

Fruits

This category includes species whose fruits that are eaten raw and are naturally sweet, such as pears (Pyrus communis), apples (Malus domestica), “capulínes” (Prunus serotina), “tejocotes” (Crataegus mexicana), prickly pears (Opuntia spp.), and “garambullos” (Myrtillocactus geometrizans (Mart. ex Pfeiff.) Console).

Condiments or spices

Species classified as condiments or spices are added in small amounts to stews or soups to enhance the flavor and include “epazote” (Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants) and Mexican bay leaf (Litsea glaucescens). However, species such as "anis de monte" (Tagetes filifolia Lag. and T. micrantha Cav.) are also used to enhance the flavor of raw, freshly cut maize canes which are eaten by sucking the juice from the stalks and rubbing them with the fresh aniseed.

Stews

Most stews are eaten in tacos. Newly harvested potatoes, or "white potatoes" (Solanum tuberosum L.), were preferably roasted on the stove and served with fresh milk for children's breakfast. Today, potatoes are incorporated into the stews with meat (Fig. 12a), sauces, or with nopales (Opuntia spp. cladodes). "Talayotes" or "puerquitos" (Matelea pedulculata (Decne.) Woodson) grow during the rainy season, and although they can be eaten raw (as a snack), they are preferably eaten roasted. “Talayotes” and “puerquitos” can be eaten even if they are not tender. The “quelites” are also often used in stews (Fig. 12e).

Fig. 12

Stews and sauces in a molcajete (mortar and pestle) from the SMT edible plants. a "white potatoes" (Solanum tuberosum) with meat; b cooked “nopalitos” (Opuntia spp.) for “tacos”; c “chilacayote” (Cucurbita ficifolia) stew; d "chile manzano" (Capsicum pubescens) hot sauce; e “quelite cenizo” (Chenopodium berlandieri) patties

Sauces

Informants mentioned that about 30 years ago many plants of "chimpinas" or wild eggplants (Lycianthes moziniana (Dunal) Bitter) could be found in the maize fields and surrounding areas. People could collect so many that they would braid them together by weaving the fruit stems. These braids were eaten raw like tomatoes. Apparently, they lasted for many weeks because the braids were hung in the kitchens to have the "chimpinas" available when making a chili sauce.

Another highly valued species for sauces is the "coconoxtle" (Opuntia joconostle), with different fruit colors: white, orange, red, and pink, some with a more acidic taste than others. They also mention the "aguses" (Physalis spp.) as being important for the preparation of green sauces when used raw (orange or yellow when ripe) because they have a very pleasant taste a little sweet like the "chimpinas".

The sauces are made with “chiles” from the communities. The "chiles manzanos" (Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav.) are the most common in backyards, although the "chile piquín" (C. annuum var. glabriusculum) and the "chile campana" (C. baccatum L.) are grown in greenhouses (Fig. 12d).

“Hacer rendir la masa” (increasing the corn dough volume)

Another category is considered for the plants that are used as additives in the dough when there is not enough corn have been harvested to make tortillas. Thus, parts of some plants are added to the dough, such as the male maize spikes (Zea mays), “dalia” flowers (Dahlia coccinea), “lengua de vaca” seeds (Rumex sp.), and "tumbavaqueros" flowers (Ipomoea stans Cav.). These four species are not currently used as such, but it was common for people between the ages of 40 and 60 to mention them as a strategy used by their parents when poor harvests left families without enough maize, thus leading to hunger.

Soups

In the past, it was usual to cook white potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) especially in a "white soup" to ward off the cold. The "coconoxtle" prickly pear is used to prepare broths with meat and the guajillo chili (Capsicum annum) to enhance the flavor. Pumpkin flowers (Cucurbita pepo) were used in the past to thicken soup broths as if it were chicken broth.

Seeds (grains)

The two bean species (Phaseolus vulgaris L. and P. coccineus L.) occurring in the area, play a fundamental role in the diet. For P. vulgaris, at least 18 varieties were mentioned by respondents. These are known by common names such as “San Franciscano,” “vaquita,” “negro vaquita,” “rojo,” “ojo de cabra,” “negrito,” “moro,” and “amarillo” (Fig. 13). With regard to maize (Zea mays), 15 types were mentioned, corresponding to seven identified races (Table 4).

Fig. 13

Some types of beans produced in the fields and plots of SMT. a–g Phaseolus vulgaris, h–i Phaseolus coccineus

Table 4 Local names for corn races and varieties

This category contains broad-leafed cultivated plants species such lettuce (Lactuca sativa) or garden “quelites,” such as “patita de pájaro” (Calandrinia ciliata), which can be eaten raw and are used in various dishes.

Bread/cookies

Sweet bread is made with one of the two anise species, Tagetes filifolia or T. micrantha, especially from their seeds.

Secondary uses of some edible species

In addition to the direct consumption of most of the edible species, the interviews revealed three plant species associated with other culturally important food resources, “huitlacoche” (Ustilago maydis (DC.) Corda), “panchihuas” or “lulitos” (Quercus spp. galls), and madrone worms. The first case, it is the fungus associated with the ears of corn (Zea mays). The second case is the oak galls caused by various wasp species which promote a special tissue in response to the wasps' oviposition. Galls are called “panchihuas” or “lulitos” which means fruits in Hñäñho (Otomi). The third name refers to the caterpillars of a particular butterfly species found on the madrone tree (Arbutus sp.), which many years ago were roasted and eaten in tacos with salsa. To extract the caterpillars, the "little bag," full of them needs to be open. This resource is now extinct in the area because madrone trees became progressively scarce and no new plants have appeared.

Among some plants used to preserve food, is the "pextó chiquito" (Brickellia veronicifolia (Kunth) A.Gray). Although is not directly consumed, it is used to put it in a hole excavated in the rosette top left after to cut off the inflorescence stalk of “maguey”” (Agave spp.) in order to extract the sap that we call “aguamiel.” This plant prevents spoiling the sap “aguamiel” used for fermentation to prepare pulque. It is worth noting that this “pextó” species has medicinal uses due to its bitter taste and probably contains antibiotic compounds that prevent the proliferation of fermenting microorganisms in the freshly extracted “aguamiel.”

Potentially toxic species and their way of use

Out of the 119 species recorded in the study area, some have edible parts that are completely harmless. Other plants have edible parts that should be consumed in small quantities to avoid toxicity, such as “madroño” (Arbutus sp.) fruits. Some other species have toxic parts that must not be eaten, such as the “congrá” or “congora” (Phytolacca icosandra L.), whose tender shoots, before flowering, are eaten as greens. However, the leaves must be beaten on a stone and then boiled, drained, and stewed before consumption. The fruits of this species, which resemble cherries, should not be eaten as they are highly poisonous. The fruits were used in the past as a stain remover and laundry detergent.