David Boothe W, Tarbox JA, Tarbox MB. Atopic dermatitis: pathophysiology. Management of atopic dermatitis: methods and challenges. 2017:21–37.

Peng W, Novak N. Pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Clin Experimental Allergy. 2015;45(3):566–74.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Savva M, Papadopoulos NG, Gregoriou S, Katsarou S, Papapostolou N, Makris M, et al. Recent advancements in the atopic dermatitis mechanism. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed). 2024;29(2):84. https://doi.org/10.31083/j.fbl2902084.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Takeshita J, Gupta J, Zhu Y, Berna R, Chiesa Fuxench ZC, Margolis DJ. Atopic dermatitis and the atopic March: considering Racial and ethnic diversity in atopic disease progression. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2022;149(5):1590–1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2022.03.008.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tong A, Mihm M. The pathology of atopic dermatitis. Clin Rev Allergy. 1986;4:27–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Akdis CA, Akdis M, Trautmann A, Blaser K. Immune regulation in atopic dermatitis. Curr Opin Immunol. 2000;12(6):641–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee SY, Lee E, Park YM, Hong SJ. Microbiome in the Gut-Skin Axis in atopic dermatitis. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2018;10(4):354–62. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2018.10.4.354.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Flint HJ, Scott KP, Louis P, Duncan SH. The role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9(10):577–89. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2012.156.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Feng Y, Huang Y, Wang Y, Wang P, Song H, Wang F. Antibiotics induced intestinal tight junction barrier dysfunction is associated with microbiota dysbiosis, activated NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(6):e0218384. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218384.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kim HJ, Lee SH, Hong SJ. Antibiotics-Induced dysbiosis of intestinal microbiota aggravates atopic dermatitis in mice by altered Short-Chain fatty acids. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2020;12(1):137–48. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2020.12.1.137.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang L, Shi Z, Wang X, Mu S, Xu X, Shen L, et al. Protective effects of bovine milk exosomes against oxidative stress in IEC-6 cells. Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(1):317–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-020-02242-z.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhou F, Paz HA, Sadri M, Cui J, Kachman SD, Fernando SC, et al. Dietary bovine milk exosomes elicit changes in bacterial communities in C57BL/6 mice. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2019;317(5):G618–24. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00160.2019.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tong L, Hao H, Zhang Z, Lv Y, Liang X, Liu Q, et al. Milk-derived extracellular vesicles alleviate ulcerative colitis by regulating the gut immunity and reshaping the gut microbiota. Theranostics. 2021;11(17):8570–86. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.62046.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Du C, Wang K, Zhao Y, Nan X, Chen R, Quan S, et al. Supplementation with Milk-Derived extracellular vesicles shapes the gut microbiota and regulates the transcriptomic landscape in experimental colitis. Nutrients. 2022;14(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14091808.

Du C, Quan S, Zhao Y, Nan X, Chen R, Tang X, et al. Bovine milk-derived extracellular vesicles prevent gut inflammation by regulating lipid and amino acid metabolism. Food Funct. 2023;14(4):2212–22. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2fo03975c.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Han G, Cho H, Kim H, Jang Y, Jang H, Kim DE, et al. Bovine colostrum derived-exosomes prevent dextran sulfate sodium-induced intestinal colitis via suppression of inflammation and oxidative stress. Biomater Sci. 2022;10(8):2076–87. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1bm01797g.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mecocci S, Ottaviani A, Razzuoli E, Fiorani P, Pietrucci D, De Ciucis CG, et al. Cow milk extracellular vesicle effects on an in vitro model of intestinal inflammation. Biomedicines. 2022;10(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10030570.

Tong L, Hao H, Zhang X, Zhang Z, Lv Y, Zhang L, et al. Oral administration of bovine Milk-Derived extracellular vesicles alters the gut microbiota and enhances intestinal immunity in mice. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2020;64(8):e1901251. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201901251.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jeyaram A, Jay SM. Preservation and storage stability of extracellular vesicles for therapeutic applications. AAPS J. 2018;20:1–7.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Somiya M, Yoshioka Y, Ochiya T. Biocompatibility of highly purified bovine milk-derived extracellular vesicles. J Extracell Vesicles. 2018;7(1):1440132. https://doi.org/10.1080/20013078.2018.1440132.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yu S, Zhao Z, Xu X, Li M, Li P. Characterization of three different types of extracellular vesicles and their impact on bacterial growth. Food Chem. 2019;272:372–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.08.059.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Luo Y, Bi J, Lin Y, He J, Wu S, Zhang Y, et al. Milk-derived small extracellular vesicles promote bifidobacteria growth by accelerating carbohydrate metabolism. Lwt. 2023;182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114866.

Liu S, da Cunha AP, Rezende RM, Cialic R, Wei Z, Bry L, et al. The host shapes the gut microbiota via fecal MicroRNA. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;19(1):32–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2015.12.005.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Maburutse BE, Park MR, Oh S, Kim Y. Evaluation and characterization of Milk-derived microvescicle isolated from bovine colostrum. Korean J Food Sci Anim Resour. 2017;37(5):654–62. https://doi.org/10.5851/kosfa.2017.37.5.654.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mun D, Ryu S, Choi HJ, Kang AN, Lim D-H, Oh S, et al. Bovine colostrum-derived extracellular vesicles May accelerate the growth of Akkermansia muciniphila by regulating energy metabolism in intestinal anaerobic coculture system. Food Science of Animal Resources; 2024.

Choi H, Kwak M-J, Choi Y, Kang AN, Mun D, Eor JY, et al. Extracellular vesicles of Limosilactobacillus fermentum SLAM216 ameliorate skin symptoms of atopic dermatitis by regulating gut Microbiome on serotonin metabolism. Gut Microbes. 2025;17(1):2474256.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Riedl R, Kühn A, Rietz D, Hebecker B, Glowalla K-G, Peltner LK, et al. Establishment and characterization of mild atopic dermatitis in the DNCB-induced mouse model. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(15):12325.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Won TJ, Kim B, Lim YT, Song DS, Park SY, Park ES, et al. Oral administration of Lactobacillus strains from Kimchi inhibits atopic dermatitis in NC / Nga mice. J Appl Microbiol. 2011;110(5):1195–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.04981.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yoo J, Lee J, Zhang M, Mun D, Kang M, Yun B, et al. Enhanced γ-aminobutyric acid and Sialic acid in fermented deer antler Velvet and immune promoting effects. J Anim Sci Technol. 2022;64(1):166.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Szymanski U, Cios A, Ciepielak M, Stankiewicz W. Cytokines and apoptosis in atopic dermatitis. Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2021;38(2):1–13. https://doi.org/10.5114/ada.2019.88394.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim JE, Kim HS. Microbiome of the skin and gut in atopic dermatitis (AD): Understanding the pathophysiology and finding novel management strategies. J Clin Med. 2019;8(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8040444.

Novak N, Bieber T, Kraft S. Immunoglobulin E-bearing antigen-presenting cells in atopic dermatitis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2004;4(4):263–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu F-T, Goodarzi H, Chen H-Y. IgE, mast cells, and eosinophils in atopic dermatitis. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2011;41:298–310.

Article  CAS