The analysis of the six determinants was conducted through participants’ narratives, from which overarching insights were identified and marked in orange as substantive categories. Higher-order concepts were subsequently abstracted and marked in purple as organised categories. These categories were visually mapped to illustrate the distinctive characteristics of each determinant (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Overall substantive and organised categories

While the first three determinants revealed heterogeneous perspectives, with participants differing in personality expressions, self-construal, and orientations of control, the last three highlighted more consistent commonalities in sustaining participation. Across narratives, self-determination was evident as participants acknowledged age-related limitations and reframed the pursuit of perfect performance into the goal of giving their best effort. This mindset reinforced motivation and manifested in persistent attendance, deriving satisfaction from consistent effort, and ultimately transforming participation into a long-term commitment. Complementing this, general skills were demonstrated through practical approaches to overcoming obstacles, with participants maintaining attendance despite physical challenges and, in some cases, proactively arranging self-directed practice outside of class to enhance performance. Building on these, self-efficacy emerged through reinforced confidence in the ability to adapt to challenges and improve physical conditioning, creating a positive feedback loop in which accomplishments fostered a sense of fulfilment that sustained engagement.

Personality

Participants’ personality-related experiences reflected the key traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Openness to Experience

Two participants demonstrated an attitude of embracing new experiences in their general lives, regardless of their age. Their openness reflected a proactive stance towards growth and change, extending beyond exercise participation into a broader orientation toward life. In contrast, one participant adopted a more selective approach, engaging only when he had carefully weighed the activity and judged it to be meaningful or beneficial. His participation reflected prudent evaluation in everyday life choices rather than a spontaneous openness to new experiences.

Curiosity and willingness to explore: Participants (P3 and P4) expressed a sustained openness to unfamiliar experiences. This was particularly evident in their enthusiasm for seizing new opportunities. They resisted the notion that ageing should serve as a barrier to continued exploration and engagement in life.

I’ve always been a curious one…basically like a Curious George. As long as it’s not something dangerous, I’m open to trying anything. I think staying open-minded keeps you young. You’ve gotta keep that sense of curiosity. Some people give up too quickly, like saying, ‘Oh, never mind, I won’t try it.’ That’s not me. (P3, Female)

Selective engagement: One participant approached new experiences with a cautious and deliberative mindset. His engagement was more consistent with the situational approach, often choosing to participate only when he felt it was necessary.

Some people say I seem impassive in group settings, like I’m not really that involved. But honestly, it’s not that I avoid participating. I just feel that if there’s a real reason to be involved, then I’ll definitely join in. If not, I won’t go out of my way to be actively engaged. (P2, Male)

Conscientiousness

All five participants exhibited a common personality trait characterised by a strong sense of duty and pursuit of perfection, as reflected in their high personal standards and meticulous attention to detail in everyday tasks.

Commitment to order, precision and high standards: The participants expressed a strong sense of responsibility and clear drive for excellence. Their pursuit of precision and order reflected not only a desire to do things right but also a deeper commitment to self-discipline and personal accountability.

The way I do things, I tend to give it my all and try to think things through as carefully and thoroughly as I can. (P1, Male)

Extraversion

The findings indicate that one participant showed a distinctly extroverted disposition. In contrast, the remaining four participants were not inclined to present themselves assertively or engage frequently with unfamiliar individuals.

Social responsiveness and emotional sensitivity: Among the five participants, only one demonstrated a more extroverted personality, marked by active social engagement and sensitive awareness of others’ emotional needs.

I quite enjoy chatting with people. There was this older lady in our group, …more than ten years older than me …, and she was always so polite. She would usually sit there quietly by herself. It’s not that she was unfriendly, just more on the reserved side. So I would go and talk to her. (P3, Female)

More reserved in social situations: The remaining participants tended to maintain a low profile in the group settings and demonstrated a relatively limited inclination to interact with strangers. Although not overtly introverted, they were more socially engaged in familiar contexts or when interactions were deemed necessary.

I’m not really the type who would go out of my way to start a conversation with strangers. I’m not exactly outgoing. But if it’s someone I know, I’ll talk more; if not, I tend to keep quiet. It really depends on the vibe of the situation. (P4, Male)

Agreeableness

All the participants demonstrated relational sensitivity in their social interactions and balanced emotional connections with context-dependent engagement.

Easy going, caring for others and altruistic: The participants tended to withhold strong personal opinions to preserve social harmony during their interactions. They valued emotional connections while maintaining respectful boundaries and adjusting their level of engagement based on social context.

I’m willing to stay and connect with people, to build relationships..., and I think caring about others can make you happy. Of course, that doesn’t mean getting involved in their personal business... Sometimes, through those conversations, they are able to open up and share things about themselves... That feels meaningful to me. When it comes to interacting with others..., I think the most important thing is to be genuine. (P3, Female)

Neuroticism

Three of the five participants demonstrated emotional stability and ability to regulate their emotions in response to external stimuli. However, one participant noted that her emotional reactions were triggered more easily during interactions with family members.

Emotional regulation and coping with stress: Three of the participants (P1, P2, and P3) exhibited emotional stability and self-regulation. When facing stress, they believed that excessive worry was unhelpful.

These days, I don’t get easily triggered or …react strongly to stress. I suppose it’s because, through a lifetime of experience, you come to realise that worrying too much doesn’t help. Sometimes, you just don’t have the strength of mind for that. So really, what’s the point? (P3, Female)

Emotionally sensitive: One participant acknowledged that she was emotionally affected by family dynamics, particularly during interactions with close family members.

I can be pretty sensitive, honestly. When it comes to interactions with my family, I sometimes get caught up in emotions, and feel upset for a couple of days. (P5, Female)

Sense of Self

The interview analysis identified three categories related to participants' self-understanding. These included internal awareness, responses to social interactions, and factors that appeared to limit self-perception.

A Solid Sense of Self

Four participants were attuned to their emotional states and personal values, and responded to external pressures with calm reasoning and emotional self-regulation.

Self-awareness and emotional stability within individuality: The participants (P1, P2, and P3) demonstrated a clear sense of self-awareness, including an understanding of their emotional responses and personality traits. They were able to regulate their emotions appropriately while maintaining personal principles in group settings. Although they valued social harmony, they emphasised autonomy and did not compromise their individuality to please others.

I’m friendly to most people. But if it means... pleasing others at the cost of sacrificing myself, then I’m not going to do it. I still insist on being true to who I am. Maybe some people talk badly about me behind my back, but these days, I don’t really care anymore. (P3, Female)

Composed Autonomy in Interpersonal Boundaries

Two participants maintained a respectful distance in their relationships, remained true to their principles, and responded to criticism with quiet flexibility. This reflects the steady balance between self-assurance and social awareness.

Composed engagement during interpersonal tensions: Participants (P3 and P4) were open to engaging in critical feedback, but tended to disregard non-constructive criticism without confrontation.

When there’s some kind of negative comment about me… well, if it’s from someone I’m close to, I’ll take it in and reflect on it. But if it’s from someone I don’t really know, I just let it slide with a smile. I’m not the type to get into confrontations, especially with someone I’m not close to. (P4, Male)

Constrained Sense of Self

While four participants demonstrated clarity in their sense of self, this study also uncovered circumstances in which self-perception appeared limited or restrained. In particular, one participant’s account highlighted subtle internal barriers. These reflections are organised into two distinct categories.

Motherhood as responsibility: The participant’s narrative reflected a motherhood mindset deeply rooted in traditional family norms, in which a mother is expected to place her family’s needs before her own. This cultural expectation might impose disproportionate responsibilities on her, making the concepts of self-care and self-love feel distant and unfamiliar.

I don’t really understand myself, and I guess I’ve always been passive about that. People talk about loving yourself, but I wonder, what does that even mean? For me, everything has always centred around my family, and I always put them first…. That’s my responsibility. Since I’m a housewife, that’s the role I’m supposed to play. (P5, Female)

Inhibited engagement in emotional restoration: The participant also described how she had been conditioned by her upbringing to stay home during her free time rather than seeking solitude or emotional renewal outside, even though restorative and mood-lifting activities were often encouraged.

Even when I’m in a bad mood, there’s nothing I can really do about it. Life still goes on, right? So I just stay at home and feel upset for a while. I guess it’s the way we were raised in traditional families. We’re not used to going out with friends. Of course, there are occasional get-togethers, but going out alone to relax almost never happens for me. I don’t really go looking for alone time or anything like that. If I have free time, I just stay at home. (P5, Female)

Locus of ControlBelief in Internal Control

Four out of five participants emphasised that their own efforts and abilities were essential to success, rather than relying on external circumstances, which they viewed as unstable and unreliable. They tend to trust their capabilities to influence outcomes through personal control.

Sense of control over life outcomes: Participants (P1, P4, and P5) emphasised that life outcomes were primarily the result of personal ability rather than external circumstances or luck. They viewed the accumulation of experience, built steadily from youth, as the foundation for growth and achievement.

Sure, luck plays a role in life. But if you don’t have the experience, and you haven’t put in the work, it doesn’t count for much. We spend our whole lives from youth to retirement gaining experience, and that’s how we grow. (P5, Female)

Persistence and personal sacrifice for achievement: Beyond attributing positive outcomes to personal experiences and abilities, one participant also emphasised that achieving desirable results required wholehearted commitment and persistent effort.

If you don’t put in some effort or make some kind of sacrifice, how can you expect good results? You have to work hard if you want something good to come out of it. (P5, Female)

Belief in External Control

In contrast, one participant expressed the belief that life outcomes are primarily determined by fate rather than by her own efforts or abilities.

Acceptance of uncontrollable outcomes: The participant expressed the belief that life unfolds according to predetermined paths, preferring to accept destiny and believing that effort alone cannot alter what is to happen.

I guess I’m more of a fatalist. When it comes to handling things, I tend to just... go with the flow. I feel like things work out the way they’re meant to, so why push yourself to the edge? If something’s meant to be mine, it will be. If it’s not, no matter how hard you try... maybe it just wasn’t part of the plan. (P3, Female)

Self-DeterminationDriven by Inner Motivation

Participants generally demonstrated an awareness of their physical abilities and recognised the gradual decline in their overall physical condition that comes with ageing. They did not push themselves beyond their limits but accepted their physical constraints, believing that doing their best was fulfilling. Nevertheless, they maintained a persistent attitude, striving to keep up with their classes as much as possible.

Persistent effort despite physical challenges: When encountering age-related physical limitations, participants (P1, P4 and P5) encouraged themselves to keep practising while adjusting their expectations. Rather than giving up, they accepted their current capacities and continued striving towards their goals by doing their best.

Our bodies are stiff now, so we just can’t stretch the way the instructor does. But she always encourages us to do our best,... and we just try as much as we can. (P5, Female)

General SkillsPractical Approaches to Overcome Obstacles

Despite challenges during exercise, the participants maintained consistent participation. Two also proactively arranged extra sessions outside of class, taking practical actions to improve performance.

Proactively arranged self-directed practice: When encountering physically demanding movements in class, two participants (P3 and P4) deliberately arranged additional practise opportunities to overcome obstacles and achieve their exercise goals.

If the class feels too hard and I start falling behind, I’ll make time to practise on my own, just so I can keep up in the next sessions. (P4, Male)

Self-EfficacyDimensions of Efficacy Expectations

The beliefs about future engagement in group exercises reflected two dimensions of efficacy expectation: strength and generality.

Strength: All five participants expressed a strong and enduring sense of confidence in their ability to continue participating in the exercise programme. They conveyed firm determination and clear anticipation of future involvement.

I'll keep participating, yah, unless there's a health problem. Otherwise, I don’t think I'd stop. (P5, Female)

Generality:One participant also expressed confidence in his ability to start weight training, suggesting a belief in his physical capabilities that could be applied across various contexts.

I’ve been feeling more and more confident in myself. In the future, I’d like to challenge myself...like getting into strength training. I actually feel pretty confident about that, since the harder you train, the more progress you’ll see. (P1, Male)

Outcome Expectations

The findings indicated that participants’ evaluations of outcomes related to their health behaviours reflected a combination of social recognition and a sense of personal value derived from helping others.

Facilitating contribution and personal fulfilment: Through regular exercise, individuals developed better physical health, which enabled them (P2, P3, and P4) to support others and in turn fostered a stronger sense of self-worth.

If you don’t have your health, you can’t even take care of yourself. You’d be spending all your time going back and forth to the hospital. How would you have time to do anything else? But if you join this group activity and keep exercising here, your chronic pain eases up. Then you’ll have the ability to help others. (P2, Male)

Sources of Efficacy Expectations

Based on the accounts of these five participants, this study identified three key sources of efficacy expectations: performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion.

Performance accomplishments: Reflecting on their past health conditions and physical performance, participants (P1, P2, and P3) reported noticeable improvements over time after engaging in regular exercise. These experiences signified physical progress, which, in turn, enhanced their confidence and reinforced continued participation.

Back then, my immune system wasn’t functioning properly, and the doctor told me that if I relied only on medication, the dosage would just keep increasing. …so I decided to join this exercise programme. After about a year, I noticed that my symptoms weren’t as noticeable anymore. I even started forgetting to take my meds sometimes, you know? …The discomfort in my body had eased up too. (P2, Male)

Vicarious experience: Four participants (P1, P2, P4, and P5) expressed awareness of the common phenomenon of prolonged bedridden years among older adults in Taiwan. This realisation appeared to strengthen their commitment to engaging more intentionally in managing their health. They identified the value of regular preventive exercise as a meaningful way to maintain physical function, while preserving a sense of dignity and autonomy in later life.

If your health is good, your quality of life will get better too. These days, people often say the shorter your bedridden years are, the better. I mean, what’s the point of living into your eighties or nineties if you end up spending decades stuck in bed? That’d be pretty miserable, haha. (P1, Male)

Verbal persuasion: Professional guidance from instructors supported the participants’ engagement. They (P4 and P5) believed that expert instruction helped them improve and master the proper exercise techniques. Instructors’ empathetic and encouraging teaching styles also enhanced their confidence and strengthened their willingness to stay engaged.

Having professional instructors guiding us has been a huge help, whether it’s for developing our technique, deepening our academic knowledge, or improving our overall health. (P4, Male)