The intersection between religion and spirituality and mental health has been an increasingly intriguing and prolific area of research (Barbera & Bernstein, 2025). Religion and spirituality have to do with “beliefs, practices, and rituals related to the transcendent” (Koenig, 2012). One prominent practice within this larger complex is that of private prayer. Although data indicate an overall decrease in frequency of prayer in the U.S. between 2007 and 2024, a recent survey of religious beliefs and practices indicated that prayer remains a common practice as 44% of U.S. adults report praying at least once daily while 23% pray weekly or monthly (Pew Research Center, 2025).

In view of the sharp rise in the diagnosis of psychological conditions such as anxiety and depression, especially among young adults (Bischof et al., 2020), this study sought to extend existing research demonstrating that prayer is a salutary mental health resource for those open to faith-derived interventions (McCulloch & Parks-Stamm, 2020). An integrated approach, whereby practices and resources that are religious or spiritual in nature are incorporated into an overall framework for addressing mental and emotional pressures, is proving to be vital for those who consider religion and spirituality a part of their lives (Barbera & Bernstein, 2025). For example, spirituality, as expressed through private prayer, is associated with lower levels of depression and higher levels of optimism and coping (Anderson & Nunnelley, 2016; Pössel et al., 2018). Furthermore, for individuals for whom private prayer is important, private prayer can serve as a viable and effective method for coping with emotional pain and suffering and has been positively correlated with faster recovery rates from depression and lower rates of suicide (Wachholtz & Sambamthoori, 2013).

Yet, prayer is also multifaceted in its expression and application, and the literature indicates that not all types of prayer (i.e., supplication, thanksgiving, adoration, confession, colloquial, meditative, ritual) are equal in terms of their influence upon psychological well-being (Anderson & Nunnelley, 2016). Specifically, meditative prayer (in which the pray-er relationally listens and feels for God’s presence) and colloquial prayer (characterized by conversation with God) have been found to have a positive association with mental health (Winkeljohn Black et al., 2015). Another genre of prayer that has received initial consideration in the literature for its therapeutic influence is known as lament, referring to a manner of prayer that characteristically includes the expression of strong emotions like anger, confusion, and pain (Dickie, 2020; Snow et al., 2011). Furthermore, several studies have demonstrated that emotional self-disclosure is one of the variables mediating the positive relationship between prayer and psychological well-being (VandeCreek et al., 2002; Winkeljohn Black et al. 2015, 2017; Zarzycka & Krok, 2021). Given that emotional self-disclosure is a vital dimension of biblical lament, the findings of these respective studies, though distinct, are also complementary.

Historically, the facet of prayer characterized by emotional self-disclosure is referred to as lament. Rather than refrain from disclosing difficult thoughts and feelings to God, the lamenter openly expressed those complexities without fear of rejection or reprisal. In a religious context, lament refers to a manner or mode of approaching God that includes prayerful expression of negative emotions (Rochester, 2016). Indeed, what distinguishes lament as a form of prayer, at least in part, is its intensely emotive quality. The gamut of negative emotions expressed via lament is wide and includes disappointment, anxiety, anger, and even thoughts of death (Harris, 2020). For reference, biblical lament is illustrated most definitively in the Psalms, where over one third of the content is dedicated to the expression of affective distress. Here we observe in the lyrics of David and others that lament is a dimension of worship whereby the worshiper prayerfully expresses without pretense or reservation what they are feeling to God (Bullock, 2018). As a particularized mode of prayer, lament allows one to give unmitigated expression to emotions without fear of reprisal; it functions as a sanctified outlet for the “full range of emotion” (Carlson, 2015, p. 54).

Yet, scholars also emphasize that lament is not an end it itself but rather appears to serve as a facilitator of deeply sincere expression when the worshiper is confronted with lamentable realities. That is, there is an apparent pattern in lament, particularly in the psalms of lament, whereby the lament seems to aid in the worshiper to move from a place of emotional distress or disorientation to a place of reassurance and renewed optimism (Brueggemann, 1986). In other words, lament is not the destination, but it is a restorative stop along the way.

Indeed, the emotional candor of lament surprises us at first and prompts us to ask, “Is it acceptable to approach God in this manner?” Due to their severity or complexity, these expressions may seem to be out of place in the context of an address to God. Scholarly perspectives vary on this point, but there is broad consensus that lament remains as valid and viable now as it was in ancient times and that, although it may run contrary to the theological sensibilities of some, lament is indeed within the circumference of righteous experience and expression. (Brueggemann, 1986; Bullock, 2018; Longman, 2014; Rindge, 2012). That is, just as lament was a vital aspect of worship for ancient biblical figures such as David, not to mention Job, Jeremiah, Elijah, and others, so there is strong consensus among theologians and Bible scholars that lament still has its place in the larger repertoire of worship today (Bullock, 2018).

With a description of the nature of lament in place, it may also be helpful to note how lament impacts the emotional well-being of those who are engaged with it. Scholars observe that lament seems to function as a vehicle, of sorts, by which the pray-er moves from a posture of affective distress to one of alleviation and renewed orientation to God, to life, and to life’s difficulties. That is, lament is not static but rather has a dynamic progression in which the lamenter transitions from an initial mode of complaint to a subsequent posture of faith reassured. Particularly among the psalms of lament, there is broad recognition of a sentimental movement that takes place, a lyrical arc as it were, that ranges from the depths of despair to the heights of singular praise (Brueggemann, 1986, p. 57; Longman, 2014). Whereas the psalm of lament may begin with an unadorned expression of dysphoric emotion (e.g., Psalm 6:2 “Be gracious to me, O LORD, for I am languishing; heal me, O Lord, for my bones are troubled” ESV), more often than not it then progressively ascends in its tone as signified by utterances of renewed hope and trust (Psalm 6:9 “The LORD has heard my plea; the LORD accepts my prayer” ESV). Given the growing scholarly interest in the psychology of hope, the apparent connection between lament and hope is especially timely. Hope is conceptualized as an “attentional focus on the possibility that the future will be good,” and research indicates that a greater sense of hope is associated with higher psychological well-being and lower psychological distress (Long et al., 2020, p. 2). In this respect, the practice of lament contributes to emotional well-being by providing a repeatable means for engaging one’s difficult emotions and facilitating movement toward a more hopeful outlook.

Importantly, emerging research exploring the relationship between the practice of lament and mental health and well-being also indicates a similar pattern. That is, initial studies demonstrate that lament appears to be a viable and contributory resource that aids in emotion management and mental health care by renewing hope (Christenson, 2007), contributing to the healing of trauma (Dickie, 2019), facilitating a greater sense of authenticity and an enhanced sense of self-esteem and well-being (Dickie, 2020), and re-integrating emotions, rationality, and spiritual formation (Rochester, 2016). As lament-like prayer is largely overlooked and unrepresented in most contemporary prayer models, these findings underscore the value of incorporating lament into our existing frameworks for understanding and practicing private prayer. Perhaps, it could be said, the widespread experience of adversity in our contemporary setting has prompted a renewed awareness of the legitimacy of lamenting the lamentable.

Private prayer is commonly conceptualized and/or analyzed with the assistance of various frameworks that classify essential elements or categories of prayer. Thus, given that emotional self-disclosure is a distinct feature of lament, this study explored how the usage of a popular prayer template (ACTS) adapted to incorporate lament-like emotional self-disclosure (FACTS), influenced the anxiety levels of Christian college students from three different institutions in the midwestern United States. The ACTS prayer template acronym, which stands for adoration, confession, thanksgiving, and supplication—has served a broad swath of Christianity well for decades as a useful pedagogical paradigm to facilitate well-balanced private expressions to God, with the idea being that each private prayer session would be optimized by giving some time and attention to each element of the acronym (Newman et al., 2023). Yet, for the purpose of exploring the association of certain types or aspects of prayer with various aspects of psychological well-being, it has been observed that the archetypal ACTS taxonomy, though a useful and reliable construct, does not account for some essential dimensions of private prayer (Laird et al., 2004). Furthermore, considering that recent literature indicates the positive relationship between those types of prayer that are emotionally disclosing and mental health (Winkeljohn Black et al., 2015, 2017; Zarzycka & Krok, 2021) and given that the ACTS template designates no space for the same, it is apparent that this classic template is substantively lacking. Hence, augmenting the model allows it to better account for emotional self-disclosure. By adding an F to the model, representing feelings, the acronym is modified to FACTS, and space for emotional self-disclosure is explicitly included. This provides the pray-er with a sort of permission as well as a structured prompt for the expression of all the feelings they may be experiencing at the time. By doing so, the adjusted template not only facilitates a more comprehensive prayer but also accesses an additional and potent means of emotion management.

Awareness is growing of what is described as a mental health “crisis” among college students in the United States. In 2014, college counseling center directors across the country reported that 52% of their clients had severe psychological problems, compared to just 44% in 2013 (Oswalt et al., 2020). More recently, surveys conducted in 2015 and 2019 of over 100,000 students revealed that diagnoses of anxiety increased from 17.7% to 24.3% (Siegel et al., 2022). Indeed, the young adult sector of the population appears to be especially vulnerable to mental health pressures (Bischof et al., 2020; Zorrilla et al., 2019). Contrary to expectations that the mental health outlook for Christian college students, enrolled in Christian institutions or otherwise, would be positively different from that of college students in general, there is insufficient data to draw such a conclusion. At present, it appears that Christian college students are subject to the same mental health concerns and conditions as the population at large. In fact, the pressures may be even more severe for Christian college students due to a historically pervasive stigma among evangelical Christians against mental illness as well as its treatment (Dinse et al., 2022). On their behalf, it is vital to identify and promote alternate and complementary means of coping. To that end, this study explored in what ways repetitiously increasing the level of self-disclosure in prayer via a template-based prayer intervention influenced the mental health of Christian college students in the Midwestern United States.