Esh C, et al. The 2026 Men’s FIFA Football World Cup: evidence-based guidelines to protect player health and performance from environmental challenges. Sports Med. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-026-02398-4

Article  Google Scholar 

Mullan D, et al. Extreme heat risk and the potential implications for the scheduling of football matches at the 2026 FIFA World Cup. Int J Biometeorol. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-025-02852-4.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gouttebarge V, et al. Protective guidelines and mitigation strategies for hot conditions in professional football: starting 11 hot tips for consideration. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2023;9(3):e001608.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

FIFA. Football Emergency Medicine Manual. 2009, Fédération Internationale de Football Association.

Grundstein A, et al. Regional heat safety thresholds for athletics in the contiguous United States. Appl Geogr. 2015;56:55–60.

Article  Google Scholar 

Roberts WO, et al. ACSM expert consensus statement on exertional heat illness: recognition, management, and return to activity. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2023;22(4):134–49.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Girard O, Brocherie F, Bishop DJ. Sprint performance under heat stress: a review. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2015;25(Suppl 1(S1)):79–89.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nybo L, Rasmussen P, Sawka MN. Performance in the heat-physiological factors of importance for hyperthermia-induced fatigue. Compr Physiol. 2014;4(2):657–89.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Taylor L, et al. The impact of different environmental conditions on cognitive function: a focused review. Front Physiol. 2015;6:372.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Martin K, et al. The impact of environmental stress on cognitive performance: a systematic review. Hum Factors. 2019;61(8):1205–46.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schmit C, et al. Cognitive functioning and heat strain: performance responses and protective strategies. Sports Med. 2017;47:1289–302.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Illmer S, Daumann F. The effects of weather factors and altitude on physical and technical performance in professional soccer: a systematic review. JSAMS Plus. 2022;1:100002.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Loxston C, Lawson M, Unnithan V. Does environmental heat stress impact physical and technical match-play characteristics in football? Sci Med Footb. 2019;3(3):191–7.

Article  Google Scholar 

Schwarz E, et al. Associations between injury occurrence and environmental temperatures in the Australian and German professional football leagues. Environ Epidemiol. 2025;9(1):e364.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schwarz E, et al. Associations between match‐play characteristics and environmental temperatures in 4 professional football leagues. Eur J Sport Sci. 2025;25(3):e12256.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schwarz E, et al. Associations between match running performance and environmental temperatures in 4 professional football leagues. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2025;20(1):109–19.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Garvican LA, et al. Lower running performance and exacerbated fatigue in soccer played at 1600 m. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9(3):397–404.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Silva H, et al. Competing at altitude reduces in-match physical demands of professional soccer players compared with sea level. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2025;20(1):131–41.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wehrlin JP, Hallén J. Linear decrease in and performance with increasing altitude in endurance athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006;96(4):404–12.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nassis GP. Effect of altitude on football performance: analysis of the 2010 FIFA World Cup data. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(3):703–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Port A, et al. Aeroallergen prevalence in the northern New Jersey-New York City metropolitan area: a 15-year summary. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2006;96(5):687–91.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lappe BL, et al. Pollen and asthma morbidity in Atlanta: a 26-year time-series study. Environ Int. 2023;177:107998.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Neumann JE, et al. Estimates of present and future asthma emergency department visits associated with exposure to Oak, Birch, and Grass Pollen in the United States. Geohealth. 2019;3(1):11–27.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kulle TJ, et al. Duration of pulmonary function adaptation to ozone in humans. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1982;43(11):832–7.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Folinsbee L. Environmental stress: individual human adaptations. New York: Elsevier; 2012.

Google Scholar 

Folinsbee LJ, Bedi JF, Horvath SM. Respiratory responses in humans repeatedly exposed to low concentrations of ozone. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980;121(3):431–9.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Beavan A, et al. Air pollution, a worthy opponent? How pollution levels impair athlete performance across physical, technical, and cognitive domains. Sci Total Environ. 2023;900:165707.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Li J, Sun S, Ho MS. Immediate impacts of air pollution on the performance of football players. J Sports Econ. 2024;25(6):753–76.

Article  Google Scholar 

Schoennagel T, et al. Adapt to more wildfire in western North American forests as climate changes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2017;114(18):4582–90.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Burke M, et al. The changing risk and burden of wildfire in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2021;118(2):e2011048118.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

SI. Every sporting event postponed or impacted by Los Angeles wildfires. 2025 [cited 2025 14 February]. https://www.si.com/nba/every-sporting-event-postponed-or-impacted-by-los-angeles-wildfires.

Janse van Rensburg DC, et al. Managing travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes: a review and consensus statement. Sports Med. 2021;51(10):2029–50.

Article  Google Scholar 

Silva MG, Paiva T, Silva HH. The elite athlete as a special risk traveler and the jet lag’s effect: lessons learned from the past and how to be prepared for the next Olympic Games 2020 Tokyo. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 2019;59(8):1420–9.

Google Scholar 

Samuels CH. Jet lag and travel fatigue: a comprehensive management plan for sport medicine physicians and high-performance support teams. Clin J Sport Med. 2012;22(3):268–73.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tokarski M, Tokarska A, Bieganek P. Jet lag: an underestimated factor in reduced physical performance in athletes. Qual Sport. 2024;21:53879–53879.

Article  Google Scholar 

Roach GD, Sargent C. Interventions to minimise jet lag after westward and eastward flight. Front Physiol. 2019;10:927.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Edwards BJ, et al. Practical considerations for team travel, the lifestyle of elite athletes, travel fatigue, infection and coping with jet lag. In: The Science of Rugby. Routledge; 2023. p. 140–58.

Chapter  Google Scholar 

Van Rensburg DCCJ, et al. How to manage travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes? A systematic review of interventions. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(16):960–8.

Article  Google Scholar 

Casadio JR, et al. From lab to real world: heat acclimation considerations for elite athletes. Sports Med. 2017;47(8):1467–76.

Article