An overview of the developments in 3D cancer cell models, assay techniques, and imaging modalities

Vernazza S, Tirendi S, Scarfi S, Passalacqua M, Oddone F, Traverso CE, et al. 2D-A nd 3D-cultures of human trabecular meshwork cells: a preliminary assessment of an in vitro model for glaucoma study. PLoS ONE. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221942.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Takezawa T, Ozaki K, Nitani A, Takabayashi C, Shimo-Oka T. Collagen vitrigel: a novel scaffold that can facilitate a three-dimensional culture for reconstructing organoids. Cell Transplant. 2004. https://doi.org/10.3727/000000004783983882.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tada Y, Takezawa T, Tani A, Nakamura T, Omori K. Collagen vitrigel scaffold for regenerative medicine of the trachea: experimental study and quantitative evaluation. Acta Otolaryngol. 2012;132:447–52. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016489.2012.654851.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tao F, Kitamura K, Hanada S, Sugimoto K, Furihata T, Kojima N. Rapid and stable formation method of human astrocyte spheroid in a high viscous methylcellulose medium and its functional advantages. Bioengineering. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering10030349.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Anada T, Fukuda J, Sai Y, Suzuki O. An oxygen-permeable spheroid culture system for the prevention of central hypoxia and necrosis of spheroids. Biomaterials. 2012;33:8430–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.08.040.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kojima N, Takeuchi S, Sakai Y. Rapid aggregation of heterogeneous cells and multiple-sized microspheres in methylcellulose medium. Biomaterials. 2012;33:4508–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.02.065.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kojima N, Takeuchi S, Sakai Y. Establishment of self-organization system in rapidly formed multicellular heterospheroids. Biomaterials. 2011;32:6059–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.04.081.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kojima N, Takeuchi S, Sakai Y. Fabrication of microchannel networks in multicellular spheroids. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2014;198:249–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2014.02.099.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Watari R, Kakiki M, Oshikata A, Takezawa T, Yamasaki C, Ishida Y, et al. A long-term culture system based on a collagen vitrigel membrane chamber that supports liver-specific functions of hepatocytes isolated from mice with humanized livers. J Toxicol Sci. 2018;43(8):521–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang Y, Tian F, Duan Y, Li Z, Chen Q, Chen J, et al. In vitro 3D cocultured tumor-vascular barrier model based on alginate hydrogel and Transwell system for anti-cancer drug evaluation. Tissue Cell. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tice.2022.101796.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sun Q, Tan SH, Chen Q, Ran R, Hui Y, Chen D, et al. Microfluidic formation of coculture tumor spheroids with stromal cells as a novel 3D tumor model for drug testing. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2018;4:4425–33. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00904.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sirenko O, Mitlo T, Hesley J, Luke S, Owens W, Cromwell EF. High-content assays for characterizing the viability and morphology of 3D cancer spheroid cultures. Assay Drug Dev Technol. 2015;13:402–14. https://doi.org/10.1089/adt.2015.655.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zanoni M, Piccinini F, Arienti C, Zamagni A, Santi S, Polico R, et al. 3D tumor spheroid models for in vitro therapeutic screening: a systematic approach to enhance the biological relevance of data obtained. Sci Rep. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep19103.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Raitanen J, Barta B, Hacker M, Georg D, Balber T, Mitterhauser M. Comparison of radiation response between 2D and 3D cell culture models of different human cancer cell lines. Cells. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12030360.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tung YC, Hsiao AY, Allen SG, Torisawa YS, Ho M, Takayama S. High-throughput 3D spheroid culture and drug testing using a 384 hanging drop array. Analyst. 2011;136:473–8. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0an00609b. (Royal Society of Chemistry).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhu S, Yin J, Lu X, Jiang D, Chen R, Cui K, et al. Influence of experimental variables on spheroid attributes. Sci Rep. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92037-1.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mayer B, Klement G, Kaneko M, Man S, Jothy S, Rak J, et al. Multicellular gastric cancer spheroids recapitulate growth pattern and differentiation phenotype of human gastric carcinomas. Gastroenterology. 2001;121:839–52. https://doi.org/10.1053/gast.2001.27989.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mehta P, Bordoloi AD, Ravensbergen C, David MKH, Mesker W, Liefers GJ, et al. Inter-spheroid proximity and matrix remodeling determine cancer associated fibroblast mediated cancer cell invasion. Acta Biomater. 2026;209:350–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2025.11.027.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lugovoi ME, Karshieva SS, Usatova VS, Voznyuk AA, Zakharova VA, Levin AA, et al. The design of the spheroids-based in vitro tumor model determines its biomimetic properties. Biomater Adv. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioadv.2025.214178.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vakhshiteh F, Bagheri Z, Soleimani M, Ahvaraki A, Pournemat P, Alavi SE, et al. Heterotypic tumor spheroids: a platform for nanomedicine evaluation. J Nanobiotechnol. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-023-02021-y.

Article  Google Scholar 

Lõhmussaar K, Oka R, Espejo Valle-Inclan J, Smits MHH, Wardak H, Korving J, et al. Patient-derived organoids model cervical tissue dynamics and viral oncogenesis in cervical cancer. Cell Stem Cell. 2021;28:1380-1396.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2021.03.012. (Cell Press).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wakamatsu T, Ogawa H, Yoshida K, Matsuoka Y, Shizuma K, Imura Y, et al. Establishment of organoids from human epithelioid sarcoma with the air-liquid interface organoid cultures. Front Oncol. 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2022.893592.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Saito Y, Muramatsu T, Kanai Y, Ojima H, Sukeda A, Hiraoka N, et al. Establishment of patient-derived organoids and drug screening for biliary tract carcinoma. Cell Rep. 2019;27:1265-1276.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2019.03.088.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zawawi SSA, Salleh EA, Musa M. Spheroids and organoids derived from colorectal cancer as tools for in vitro drug screening. Explorat Target Anti-tumor Ther. 2024. https://doi.org/10.37349/etat.2024.00226.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sachs N, de Ligt J, Kopper O, Gogola E, Bounova G, Weeber F, et al. A living biobank of breast cancer organoids captures disease heterogeneity. Cell. 2018;172:373-386.e10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.010. (Cell Press).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang H, Wang L, Zhu X, He M, Zhong L, Lv Y, et al. Patient-derived organoids predict responses to chemotherapy and PARP inhibitors in advanced ovarian cancer. J Transl Med. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-025-07112-y.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lucchetti M, Werr G, Johansson S, Barbe L, Grandmougin L, Wilmes P, et al. Integration of multiple flexible electrodes for real-time detection of barrier formation with spatial resolution in a gut-on-chip system. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-023-00640-x.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen X, Bao F, Liu J, Wang Y, Tao T, Zhang G, et al. A human liver organoids-on-chip for the assessment of drug-induced liver injury. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40360-025-01074-z.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central 

Comments (0)

No login
gif