Bhatia SN, Chen X, Dobrovolskaia MA, Lammers T. Cancer nanomedicine. Nat Rev Cancer. 2022;22:550–6.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

de Visser KE, Joyce JA. The evolving tumor microenvironment: from cancer initiation to metastatic outgrowth. Cancer Cell. 2023;41:374–403.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sahu BP, Baishya R, Hatiboruah JL, Laloo D, Biswas N. A comprehensive review on different approaches for tumor targeting using nanocarriers and recent developments with special focus on multifunctional approaches. J Pharm Investig. 2022;52:539–85.

Article  Google Scholar 

Yang D, Liu J, Qian H, Zhuang Q. Cancer-associated fibroblasts: from basic science to anticancer therapy. Exp Mol Med. 2023;55:1322–32.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hu MM, Zhao Y, Zhang N, Gong FY, Zhang W, Dong CS, et al. Tumor Microenvironment: obstacles and opportunities for T cell-based tumor immunotherapies. Mol Cancer Res. 2025;23:277–87.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Noman MZ, Desantis G, Janji B, Hasmim M, Karray S, Dessen P, et al. PD-L1 is a novel direct target of HIF-1α, and its blockade under hypoxia enhanced MDSC-mediated T cell activation. J Exp Med. 2014;211:781–90.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Joyce JA, Fearon DT. T cell exclusion, immune privilege, and the tumor microenvironment. Science. 2015;348:74–80.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ahn J, Kim B, Bello AB, Moon JJ, Arai Y, Lee SH. Regenerative functions of regulatory T cells and current strategies utilizing mesenchymal stem cells in immunomodulatory tissue regeneration. Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2025;22:167–80.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Park JH, Bae HS, Kim I, Jung J, Roh Y, Lee D, et al. Efficacy of bone regeneration cell therapy using mesenchymal stem cells originating from embryonic stem cells in animal models; bone defects and osteomyelitis. Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2025;22:145–57.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Han X, Liao R, Li X, Zhang C, Huo S, Qin L, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells in treating human diseases: molecular mechanisms and clinical studies. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2025;10:262.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Reagan MR, Kaplan DL. Concise review: mesenchymal stem cell tumor-homing: detection methods in disease model systems. Stem Cells. 2011;29:920–7.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bae J, Liu L, Moore C, Hsu E, Zhang A, Ren Z, et al. IL-2 delivery by engineered mesenchymal stem cells re-invigorates CD8+ T cells to overcome immunotherapy resistance in cancer. Nat Cell Biol. 2022;24:1754–65.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Shi Y, Zhang J, Li Y, Feng C, Shao C, Shi Y, et al. Engineered mesenchymal stem/stromal cells against cancer. Cell Death Dis. 2025;16:113.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Antoon R, Overdevest N, Saleh AH, Keating A. Mesenchymal stromal cells as cancer promoters. Oncogene. 2024;43:3545–55.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Mitchell MJ, Billingsley MM, Haley RM, Wechsler ME, Peppas NA, Langer R. Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021;20:101–24.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Choi K, Park CY, Choi JS, Kim YJ, Chung S, Lee S, et al. The effect of the mechanical properties of the 3D printed Gelatin/Hyaluronic acid scaffolds on hMSCs differentiation towards chondrogenesis. Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2023;20:593–605.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rodríguez-Fuentes DE, Fernández-Garza LE, Samia-Meza JA, Barrera-Barrera SA, Caplan AI, Barrera-Saldaña HA. Mesenchymal stem cells current clinical applications: a systematic review. Arch Med Res. 2021;52:93–101.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

de la Torre P, Pérez-Lorenzo MJ, Alcázar-Garrido Á, Flores AI. Cell-based nanoparticles delivery systems for targeted cancer therapy: lessons from anti-angiogenesis treatments. Molecules. 2020;25:715.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Almeida-Porada G, Atala AJ, Porada CD. Therapeutic mesenchymal stromal cells for immunotherapy and for gene and drug delivery. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev. 2020;16:204–24.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhang T, Lin R, Wu H, Jiang X, Gao J. Mesenchymal stem cells: a living carrier for active tumor-targeted delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2022;185:114300.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Dapkute D, Pleckaitis M, Bulotiene D, Daunoravicius D, Rotomskis R, Karabanovas V. Hitchhiking nanoparticles: mesenchymal stem cell-mediated delivery of theranostic nanoparticles. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13:43937–51.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Xie L, Zhang C, Liu M, Huang J, Jin X, Zhu C, et al. Nucleus-targeting manganese dioxide nanoparticles coated with the human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell membrane for cancer cell therapy. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2023;15:10541–53.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Uthaman S, Huh KM, Park IK. Tumor microenvironment-responsive nanoparticles for cancer theragnostic applications. Biomater Res. 2018;22:22.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blanco E, Shen H, Ferrari M. Principles of nanoparticle design for overcoming biological barriers to drug delivery. Nat Biotechnol. 2015;33:941–51.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Wilson WR, Hay MP. Targeting hypoxia in cancer therapy. Nat Rev Cancer. 2011;11:393–410.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Krueger TEG, Thorek DLJ, Denmeade SR, Isaacs JT, Brennen WN. Concise review: mesenchymal stem cell-based drug delivery: the good, the bad, the ugly, and the promise. Stem Cells Transl Med. 2018;7:651–63.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aboulkheyr Es H, Bigdeli B, Zhand S, Aref AR, Thiery JP, Warkiani ME. Mesenchymal stem cells induce PD-L1 expression through the secretion of CCL5 in breast cancer cells. J Cell Physiol. 2021;236:3918–28.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Höckel M, Vaupel P. Tumor hypoxia: definitions and current clinical, biologic, and molecular aspects. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93:266–76.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Emami Nejad A, Najafgholian S, Rostami A, Sistani A, Shojaeifar S, Esparvarinha M, et al. The role of hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment and development of cancer stem cell: a novel approach to developing treatment. Cancer Cell Int. 2021;21:62.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Chen Z, Han F, Du Y, Shi H, Zhou W. Hypoxic microenvironment in cancer: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8:70.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Xu Y, Zhu J, Feng B, Lin F, Zhou J, Liu J, et al. Immunosuppressive effect of mesenchymal stem cells on lung and gut CD8(+) T cells in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice. Cell Prolif. 2021;54:e13028.

Article  PubMed