Cowen, A. S. et al. Sixteen facial expressions occur in similar contexts worldwide. Nature 589, 251–257 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Roberts, L. W., Chan, S. & Torous, J. New tests, new tools: mobile and connected technologies in advancing psychiatric diagnosis. NPJ Digit. Med. 1, 20176 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Euston, D. R. & McNaughton, B. L. Apparent encoding of sequential context in rat medial prefrontal cortex is accounted for by behavioral variability. J. Neurosci. 26, 13143–13155 (2006).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cowen, S. L. & McNaughton, B. L. Selective delay activity in the medial prefrontal cortex of the rat: contribution of sensorimotor information and contingency. J. Neurophysiol. 98, 303–316 (2007).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Selen, L. P. J., Shadlen, M. N. & Wolpert, D. M. Deliberation in the motor system: reflex gains track evolving evidence leading to a decision. J. Neurosci. 32, 2276–2286 (2012).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Flavell, S. W., Gogolla, N., Lovett-Barron, M. & Zelikowsky, M. The emergence and influence of internal states. Neuron 110, 2545–2570 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Barrett, L. F., Adolphs, R., Marsella, S., Martinez, A. & Pollak, S. D. Emotional expressions reconsidered: challenges to inferring emotion from human facial movements. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 20, 1–68 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

LeDoux, J. E. What emotions might be like in other animals. Curr. Biol. 31, R824–R829 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dolensek, N., Gehrlach, D. A., Klein, A. S. & Gogolla, N. Facial expressions of emotion states and their neuronal correlates in mice. Science 368, 89–94 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vinck, M., Batista-Brito, R., Knoblich, U. & Cardin, J. A. Arousal and locomotion make distinct contributions to cortical activity patterns and visual encoding. Neuron 86, 740–754 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

McGinley, M. J., David, S. V. & McCormick, D. A. Cortical membrane potential signature of optimal states for sensory signal detection. Neuron 87, 179–192 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cazettes, F., Reato, D., Morais, J. P., Renart, A. & Mainen, Z. F. Phasic activation of dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons increases pupil size. Curr. Biol. 31, 192–197 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bimbard, C. et al. Behavioral origin of sound-evoked activity in mouse visual cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 26, 251–258 (2023).

Clayton, K. K. et al. Sound elicits stereotyped facial movements that provide a sensitive index of hearing abilities in mice. Curr. Biol. 34, 1605–1620 (2024).

Musall, S., Kaufman, M. T., Juavinett, A. L., Gluf, S. & Churchland, A. K. Single-trial neural dynamics are dominated by richly varied movements. Nat. Neurosci. 22, 1677–1686 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yin, C. et al. Spontaneous movements and their relationship to neural activity fluctuate with latent engagement states. Neuron https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40602403/ (2025).

Salkoff, D. B., Zagha, E., McCarthy, E. & McCormick, D. A. Movement and performance explain widespread cortical activity in a visual detection task. Cereb. Cortex 30, 421–437 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tremblay, S., Testard, C., DiTullio, R. W., Inchauspé, J. & Petrides, M. Neural cognitive signals during spontaneous movements in the macaque. Nat. Neurosci. 26, 295–305 (2022).

Syeda, A. et al. Facemap: a framework for modeling neural activity based on orofacial tracking. Nat. Neurosci. 27, 187–195 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Talluri, B. C. et al. Activity in primate visual cortex is minimally driven by spontaneous movements. Nat. Neurosci. 26, 1953–1959 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hasnain, M. A. et al. Separating cognitive and motor processes in the behaving mouse. Nat. Neurosci. 28, 640–653 (2025).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Reato, D., Steinfeld, R., Tacão-Monteiro, A. & Renart, A. Response outcome gates the effect of spontaneous cortical state fluctuations on perceptual decisions. eLife 12, e81774 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hulsey, D., Zumwalt, K., Mazzucato, L., McCormick, D. A. & Jaramillo, S. Decision-making dynamics are predicted by arousal and uninstructed movements. Cell Rep. 43, 113709 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cazettes, F. et al. A reservoir of foraging decision variables in the mouse brain. Nat. Neurosci. 26, 840–849 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vertechi, P. et al. Inference-based decisions in a hidden state foraging task: differential contributions of prefrontal cortical areas. Neuron 106, 166–176 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Stringer, C. et al. Spontaneous behaviors drive multidimensional, brainwide activity. Science 364, 255 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schwartz, A. B. Movement: how the brain communicates with the world. Cell 164, 1122–1135 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cowen, A. S. & Keltner, D. Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, E7900–E7909 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Langford, D. J. et al. Coding of facial expressions of pain in the laboratory mouse. Nat. Methods 7, 447–449 (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mangin, E. N., Chen, J., Lin, J. & Li, N. Behavioral measurements of motor readiness in mice. Curr. Biol. 33, 3610–3624 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lottem, E. et al. Activation of serotonin neurons promotes active persistence in a probabilistic foraging task. Nat. Commun. 9, 1000 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dotan, D., Meyniel, F. & Dehaene, S. On-line confidence monitoring during decision making. Cognition 171, 112–121 (2018).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cisek, P. & Kalaska, J. F. Neural mechanisms for interacting with a world full of action choices. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 33, 269–298 (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed