Teo ZL, Tham YC, Yu M et al (2021) Global prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and projection of burden through 2045: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ophthalmology 128(11):1580–1591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.04.027

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sabanayagam C, Banu R, Chee ML et al (2019) Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy: a systematic review. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 7(2):140–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30128-1

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stitt AW, Curtis TM, Chen M et al (2016) The progress in understanding and treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res 51:156–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.08.001

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chong DD, Das N, Singh RP (2024) Diabetic retinopathy: screening, prevention, and treatment. Cleve Clin J Med 91(8):503–510. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.91a.24028

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ciulla TA, Amador AG, Zinman B (2003) Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema: pathophysiology, screening, and novel therapies. Diabetes Care 26(9):2653–2664. https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.9.2653

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Antonetti DA, Silva PS, Stitt AW (2021) Current understanding of the molecular and cellular pathology of diabetic retinopathy [publisher correction appears in Nat Rev Endocrinol 2024 Oct 24. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-024-01053-0]. Nat Rev Endocrinol 17(4):195–206

O’Leary F, Campbell M (2023) The blood–retina barrier in health and disease. FEBS J 290(4):878–891. https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.16330

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mishra A, Newman EA (2010) Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase reverses the loss of functional hyperemia in diabetic retinopathy. Glia 58:1996–2004. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.21068

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pournaras CJ, Rungger-Brandle E, Riva CE, Hardarson SH, Stefansson E (2008) Regulation of retinal blood flow in health and disease. Prog Retin Eye Res 27:284–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2008.02.002

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bhakuni T, Norden PR, Ujiie N et al (2024) FOXC1 regulates endothelial CD98 (LAT1/4F2hc) expression in retinal angiogenesis and blood-retina barrier formation. Nat Commun 15(1):4097. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48134-2

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chidiac R, Abedin M, Macleod G et al (2021) A Norrin/Wnt surrogate antibody stimulates endothelial cell barrier function and rescues retinopathy. EMBO Mol Med 13(7):e13977. https://doi.org/10.15252/emmm.202113977

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tang J, Kern TS (2011) Inflammation in diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res 30(5):343–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.05.002

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang Y, Sun X, Xie Y et al (2024) Panax notoginseng saponins alleviate diabetic retinopathy by inhibiting retinal inflammation: association with the NF-κB signaling pathway. J Ethnopharmacol 319(Pt 1):117135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2023.117135

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xiao R, Lei C, Zhang Y, Zhang M (2023) Interleukin-6 in retinal diseases: from pathogenesis to therapy. Exp Eye Res 233:109556.16

Dharmarajan S, Carrillo C, Qi Z et al (2023) Retinal inflammation in murine models of type 1 and type 2 diabetes with diabetic retinopathy. Diabetologia 66(11):2170–2185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-023-05995-4

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zheng L, Howell SJ, Hatala DA, Huang K, Kern TS (2007) Salicylate-based anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit the early lesion of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 56(2):337–345. https://doi.org/10.2337/db06-0789

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang W, Lo ACY (2018) Diabetic retinopathy: pathophysiology and treatments. Int J Mol Sci 19(6):1816. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061816

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sun L, Wu J, Du F et al (2013) Cyclic GMP–AMP synthase is a cytosolic DNA sensor that activates the type I interferon pathway. Science 339:786–791. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232458

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ishikawa H, Barber GN (2008) STING is an endoplasmic reticulum adaptor that facilitates innate immune signalling. Nature 455:674–678. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07317

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Burdette DL, Monroe KM, Sotelo-Troha K et al (2011) STING is a direct innate immune sensor of cyclic di-GMP. Nature 478:515–518. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10429

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Barber GN (2015) STING: infection, inflammation and cancer. Nat Rev Immunol 15(12):760–770. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3921

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Decout A, Katz JD, Venkatraman S, Ablasser A (2021) The cGAS-STING pathway as a therapeutic target in inflammatory diseases. Nat Rev Immunol 21(9):548–569. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-021-00524-z

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Skopelja-Gardner S, An J, Elkon KB (2022) Role of the cGAS-STING pathway in systemic and organ-specific diseases. Nat Rev Nephrol 18(9):558–572. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41581-022-00589-6

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li Y, Zhu L, Cai MX et al (2023) TGR5 supresses cGAS/STING pathway by inhibiting GRP75-mediated endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondrial coupling in diabetic retinopathy. Cell Death Dis 14(9):583. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-023-06111-5

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li HY, Wang J, Xiao T et al (2025) STING immune activation of microglia aggravating neurovascular unit damage in diabetic retinopathy. Free Radic Biol Med 233:86–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2025.03.042

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu M, Wen S, Chen Y, Shi G (2024) 1809-LB: hyperglycemia activated the STING pathway to induce retinal vascular endothelial inflammation and breakdown of retinal tight junctions. Diabetes 73(Supplement_1):1809-LB. https://doi.org/10.2337/db24-1809-LB

Article  Google Scholar 

Liu H, Ghosh S, Vaidya T et al (2023) Activated cGAS/STING signaling elicits endothelial cell senescence in early diabetic retinopathy. JCI Insight 8(12):e168945. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.168945

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ge X, Zhu X, Liu W et al (2025) cGAMP promotes inner blood-retinal barrier breakdown through P2RX7-mediated transportation into microglia. J Neuroinflammation 22(1):58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-025-03391-w

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hu Z, Mao X, Chen M et al (2022) Single-cell transcriptomics reveals novel role of microglia in fibrovascular membrane of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes 71(4):762–773. https://doi.org/10.2337/db21-0551

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Corano Scheri K, Lavine JA, Tedeschi T, Thomson BR, Fawzi AA (2023) Single-cell transcriptomics analysis of proliferative diabetic retinopathy f