This study uses confidential administrative tax data from the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) Longitudinal Information Files (ALife). ALife is a de-identified longitudinal dataset that tracks a 10% random sample of individuals on the ATO client register. Access to the data is restricted to approved researchers within a secure ATO environment. As such, the data cannot be shared publicly. Researchers interested in accessing ALife must apply directly to the ATO.

All statistical code used to produce the results in this paper will be made available. The code is sufficient to reproduce the results conditional on access to the ALife data.

© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.