GINA. Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention, www.ginaasthma.org (2024).

Belyhun, Y. et al. Prevalence and risk factors of wheeze and eczema in 1-year-old children: the Butajira birth cohort, Ethiopia. Clin. Exp. Allergy 40, 619–626 (2010).

Google Scholar 

Khan, A. A. et al. Burden of asthma among children in a developing megacity: childhood asthma study, Pakistan. J. Asthma 51, 891–899 (2014).

Google Scholar 

Nantanda, R. Asthma and pneumonia among under-fives in Mulago hospital uganda: evidence for under-diagnosis of asthma. (Makerere university, Kampala, 2012).

Magwenzi, P., Rusakaniko, S., Sibanda, E. N. & Gumbo, F. Z. Challenges in the diagnosis of asthma in children, what are the solutions? A scoping review of 3 countries in sub Saharan Africa. Respir. Res. 23, 254 (2022).

Google Scholar 

Nantanda, R., Tumwine, J. K., Ndeezi, G. & Ostergaard, M. S. Asthma and pneumonia among children less than five years with acute respiratory symptoms in Mulago Hospital, Uganda: evidence of under-diagnosis of asthma. PLoS One 8, e81562 (2013).

Google Scholar 

Ostergaard, M. S. et al. Recurrent lower respiratory illnesses among young children in rural Kyrgyzstan: Overuse of antibiotics and possible under-diagnosis of asthma. A qualitative FRESH AIR study. NPJ Prim. Care Respir. Med. 28, 13 (2018).

Google Scholar 

Nantanda, R., Ostergaard, M. S., Ndeezi, G. & Tumwine, J. K. Factors associated with asthma among under-fives in Mulago hospital, Kampala Uganda: a cross sectional study. BMC Pediatr. 13, 141 (2013).

Google Scholar 

Heffelfinger, J. D. et al. Evaluation of children with recurrent pneumonia diagnosed by World Health Organization criteria. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 21, 108–112 (2002).

Google Scholar 

Ostergaard, M. S., Nantanda, R., Tumwine, J. K. & Aabenhus, R. Childhood asthma in low income countries: an invisible killer?. Prim. Care Respir. J. 21, 214–219 (2012).

Google Scholar 

Oostenbrink, R. et al. Health-related quality of life of pre-school children with wheezing illness. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 41, 993–1000 (2006).

Google Scholar 

Asthma, G. I. f. Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention (2022 update). (2022).

Nantanda, R. et al. Health Workers’ Practices in assessment and management of children with respiratory symptoms in primary care facilities in Uganda: A FRESH AIR descriptive study. J. Trop. Pediatr. 67, https://doi.org/10.1093/tropej/fmab042 (2021).

Nantanda, R., Kayingo, G., Jones, R., van Gemert, F. & Kirenga, B. J. Training needs for Ugandan primary care health workers in management of respiratory diseases: A cross sectional survey. BMC Health Serv. Res. 20, 402 (2020).

Google Scholar 

Kjaergaard, J. et al. Diagnosis and treatment of acute respiratory illness in children under five in primary care in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: A descriptive FRESH AIR study. PLoS One 14, e0221389 (2019).

Google Scholar 

WHO. Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses : Chart Booklet. (2014).

Kibirige, D. et al. Access to affordable medicines and diagnostic tests for asthma and COPD in sub Saharan Africa: the Ugandan perspective. BMC Pulm. Med. 17, 179 (2017).

Google Scholar 

Kibirige, D., Sanya, R. E., Nantanda, R., Worodria, W. & Kirenga, B. Availability and affordability of medicines and diagnostic tests recommended for management of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Allergy Asthma Clin. Immunol. 15, 14 (2019).

Google Scholar 

Stolbrink, M. et al. The availability, cost, and affordability of essential medicines for asthma and COPD in low-income and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Lancet Glob. Health 10, e1423–e1442 (2022).

Google Scholar 

Kariuki, S., Kering, K., Wairimu, C., Onsare, R. & Mbae, C. Antimicrobial resistance rates and surveillance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Where are we now?. Infect. Drug. Resistance 15, 3589–3609 (2022).

Google Scholar 

Sachdev, H. P., Mahajan, S. C. & Garg, A. Improving antibiotic and bronchodilator prescription in children presenting with difficult breathing: Experience from an urban hospital in India. Indian Pediatr. 38, 827–838 (2001).

Google Scholar 

Lodha, R., Puranik, M., Natchu, U. C. & Kabra, S. K. Recurrent pneumonia in children: clinical profile and underlying causes. Acta Paediatr. 91, 1170–1173 (2002).

Google Scholar 

Ostergaard, M. S. Childhood asthma: parents’ perspective–a qualitative interview study. Fam. Pract. 15, 153–157 (1998).

Google Scholar 

Cane, R. S., Ranganathan, S. C. & McKenzie, S. A. What do parents of wheezy children understand by “wheeze”?. Arch. Dis. Child. 82, 327–332 (2000).

Google Scholar 

Michel, G. et al. Parental understanding of wheeze and its impact on asthma prevalence estimates. Eur. Respir. J. 28, 1124–1130 (2006).

Google Scholar 

MOH. Uganda Clinical Guidelines: National guidelines for management of common clinical conditions. (2023).

O’Dempsey, T. J. et al. Overlap in the clinical features of pneumonia and malaria in African children. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 87, 662–665 (1993).

Google Scholar 

Kallander, K., Nsungwa-Sabiiti, J. & Peterson, S. Symptom overlap for malaria and pneumonia–policy implications for home management strategies. Acta Trop. 90, 211–214 (2004).

Google Scholar 

Ukwaja, K. N., Aina, O. B. & Talabi, A. A. Clinical overlap between malaria and pneumonia: can malaria rapid diagnostic test play a role?. J. Infect. Dev. Ctries. 5, 199–203 (2011).

Google Scholar 

Naidoo, K. L. et al. A cross-country qualitative analysis of teachers’ perceptions of asthma care in sub-Saharan Africa. NPJ Prim. Care Respir. Med. 33, 31 (2023).

Google Scholar 

Naidoo, K. L. et al. Barriers to childhood asthma care in sub-Saharan Africa: a multicountry qualitative study with children and their caregivers. BMJ Open. 13, e070784 (2023).

Google Scholar 

Adebisi, Y. A. et al. Prevalence and Socio-economic Impacts of Malnutrition Among Children in Uganda. Nutr. Metab. Insights 12, 1178638819887398 (2019).

Google Scholar 

Ahmed, R., Robinson, R. & Mortimer, K. The epidemiology of noncommunicable respiratory disease in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and North Africa. Malawi Med. J. 29, 203–211 (2017).

Google Scholar 

Baine, S. O. & Kasangaki, A. A scoping study on task shifting; the case of Uganda. BMC Health Serv. Res. 14, 184 (2014).

Google Scholar 

Conlon, C., Timonen, V., Elliott-O’Dare, C., O’Keeffe, S. & Foley, G. Confused about theoretical sampling? Engaging theoretical sampling in diverse grounded theory studies. Qualitative Health Res. 30, 947–959 (2020).

Google Scholar 

Anderson, R. Thematic Content Analysis (TCA). Descriptive presentation of qualitative data. 1-4 (2007).