United Nations, D.o.E.a.S.A., Population Division, World Population Prospects 2019: Data Booklet. 2019.

Aliberti MJR, Bailly S, Anstey M. Tailoring treatments to older people in intensive care. A way forward. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(12):1775–77.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lemke KW, et al. Patterns of morbidity across the lifespan: a population segmentation framework for classifying health care needs for all ages. Med Care. 2024;62(11):732–40.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Skou ST, et al. Multimorbidity. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2022;8(1):48.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Stollings JL, et al. Delirium in critical illness: clinical manifestations, outcomes, and management. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(10):1089–1103.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu SB, et al. Delirium in the ICU: how much do we know? A narrative review. Ann Med. 2024;56(1):2405072.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hshieh TT, et al. Effectiveness of multicomponent nonpharmacological delirium interventions: a meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(4):512–20.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pancholi P, et al. Triglyceride concentrations and their relationship to sedation choice and outcomes in mechanically ventilated patients receiving propofol. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2023;20(1):94–101.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Casault C, et al. Sedation strategy and ICU delirium: a multicentre, population-based propensity score-matched cohort study. BMJ Open. 2021;11(7):e045087.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lundström S, et al. Propofol. J Pain Symptom Manag. 2010;40(3):466–70.

Article  Google Scholar 

Walsh TS, et al. Dexmedetomidine- or clonidine-based sedation compared with propofol in critically ill patients: the A2B randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2025;334(1):32–45.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lewis K, et al. A focused update to the clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, anxiety, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2025;53(3):e711–e727.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang M, et al. Incidence, predictors and health outcomes of delirium in very old hospitalized patients: a prospective cohort study. BMC Geriatr. 2022;22(1):262.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sun Z, et al. The median effective concentration (EC50) of alfentanil combined with propofol closed-loop targeted infusion in super-elderly patients undergoing endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Drug Des Dev Ther. 2025;19:4011–19.

Article  Google Scholar 

Cresswell-Smith J, et al. Determinants of multidimensional mental wellbeing in the oldest old: a rapid review. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2019;54(2):135–44.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Johnson AEW, et al. MIMIC-IV, a freely accessible electronic health record dataset. Sci Data. 2023;10(1):1.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang J, et al. Brief introduction of medical database and data mining technology in big data era. J Evid Based Med. 2020;13(1):57–69.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Johnson A, et al. MIMIC-IV (version 3.0). PhysioNet; 2024.

Xu Y, et al. Exploring patient medication adherence and data mining methods in clinical big data: a contemporary review. J Evid Based Med. 2023;16(3):342–75.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wu WT, et al. Data mining in clinical big data: the frequently used databases, steps, and methodological models. Mil Med Res. 2021;8(1):44.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Austin PC, et al. Missing data in clinical research: a tutorial on multiple imputation. Can J Cardiol. 2021;37(9):1322–31.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li XY, et al. Early use of albumin may increase the risk of sepsis-associated acute kidney injury in sepsis patients: a target trial emulation. Mil Med Res. 2025;12(1):51.

CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aung Thein MZ, et al. A call to action for delirium research: meta-analysis and regression of delirium associated mortality. BMC Geriatr. 2020;20(1):325.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Saczynski JS, et al. A tale of two methods: chart and interview methods for identifying delirium. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014;62(3):518–24.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ely EW, et al. Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients: validity and reliability of the confusion assessment method for the intensive care unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA. 2001;286(21):2703–10.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

von Elm E, et al. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. Lancet. 2007;370(9596):1453–7.

Article  Google Scholar 

Che WQ, et al. How to use the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data: research design and methodology. Mil Med Res. 2023;10(1):50.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liang J, et al. Using propensity score matching to balance the baseline characteristics. J Thorac Oncol. 2021;16(6):e45–46.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chesnaye NC, et al. An introduction to inverse probability of treatment weighting in observational research. Clin Kidney J. 2022;15(1):14–20.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lewis K, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs other sedatives in critically ill mechanically ventilated adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(7):811–40.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shin HJ, et al. Postoperative delirium after dexmedetomidine versus propofol sedation in healthy older adults undergoing orthopedic lower limb surgery with spinal anesthesia: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 2023;138(2):164–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Suga M, et al. Postoperative delirium under general anaesthesia by remimazolam versus propofol: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. J Clin Anesth. 2025;101:111735.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ngcobo NN. Influence of ageing on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of chronically administered medicines in geriatric patients: a review. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2025;64(3):335–67.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ge QY, et al. The relationship between the average infusion rate of propofol and the incidence of delirium during invasive mechanical ventilation: a retrospective study based on the MIMIC IV Database. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2025;31(3):e70273.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dumitriu D, et al. Selective changes in thin spine density and morphology in monkey prefrontal cortex correlate with aging-related cognitive impairment. J Neurosci. 2010;30(22):7507–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar