Caforio ALP, Pankuweit S, Arbustini E et al (2013) Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. Eur Heart J 34:2636–2648. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht210

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Richardson P, McKenna W, Bristow M et al (1996) Report of the 1995 World Health Organization/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the Definition and Classification of cardiomyopathies. Circulation 93:841–2. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.93.5.841

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schulz-Menger J, Collini V, Gröschel J et al (2025) 2025 ESC Guidelines for the management of myocarditis and pericarditis. Eur Heart J 46:3952–4041. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehaf192

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thomas Aretz H (1987) Myocarditis: The Dallas criteria. Hum Pathol 18:619–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0046-8177(87)80363-5

Article  Google Scholar 

Bozkurt B, Colvin M, Cook J et al (2016) Current diagnostic and treatment strategies for specific dilated cardiomyopathies: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000455

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tschöpe C, Ammirati E, Bozkurt B et al (2021) Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: current evidence and future directions. Nat Rev Cardiol 18:169–193. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-020-00435-x

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kühl U, Pauschinger M, Noutsias M et al (2005) High prevalence of viral genomes and multiple viral infections in the myocardium of adults with “idiopathic” left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 111:887–893. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000155616.07901.35

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Karsenty C, Vignaud P, Brusq C et al (2025) Acute Myocarditis According to Age: Presentation, Management and Early Outcomes. ESC Heart Fail 12:2932–2945. https://doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.15304

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wilk M, Tymków R (2025) Heart Failure in the Modern Era: A Narrative Overview of Recent Research from 2022–2025. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 12:484. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcdd12120484

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Badrinath A, Bhatta S, Kloc A (2022) Persistent viral infections and their role in heart disease. Front Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1030440

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bock C-T, Klingel K, Kandolf R (2010) Human Parvovirus B19–Associated Myocarditis. N Engl J Med 362:1248–1249. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc0911362

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schultheiss H-P, Bock C-T, Aleshcheva G et al (2022) Interferon-β Suppresses Transcriptionally Active Parvovirus B19 Infection in Viral Cardiomyopathy: A Subgroup Analysis of the BICC-Trial. Viruses 14:444. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14020444

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Heymans S, Van Linthout S, Kraus SM et al (2024) Clinical characteristics and mechanisms of acute myocarditis. Circ Res 135:397–411. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.124.324674

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ammirati E, Cartella I, Varrenti M et al (2025) Acute myocarditis: 2024 state of the art. Eur Heart J Suppl 27:i56–i60. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartjsupp/suae105

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lasrado N, Reddy J (2020) An overview of the immune mechanisms of viral myocarditis. Rev Med Virol 30:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.2131

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Maisch B (2019) Cardio-immunology of myocarditis: focus on immune mechanisms and treatment options. Front Cardiovasc Med. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2019.00048

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Drazner MH, Bozkurt B, Cooper LT et al (2025) 2024 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Strategies and Criteria for the Diagnosis and Management of Myocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol 85:391–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2024.10.080

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Basso C (2022) Myocarditis. N Engl J Med 387:1488–1500. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra2114478

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yip F, Lai B, Yang D (2023) Role of coxsackievirus B3-induced immune responses in the transition from myocarditis to dilated cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Int J Mol Sci 24:7717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24097717

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Keramari S, Poutoglidis A, Chatzis S et al (2022) Parvovirus B19-associated myocarditis: a literature review of pediatric cases. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.21726

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Matsuzawa Y, Tsujita K (2025) Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on viral infectivity and the role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Hypertens Res 48:1636–1638. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-025-02115-0

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu H, Zhou P, Huang Y et al (2025) Clinical Characteristics, Diagnosis and Short-Term Outcomes of COVID-19–Associated Acute Myocarditis in China. ESC Heart Fail 12:338–352. https://doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.15048

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wilk MM, Wilk J, Florek K, Zimoch WJ (2025) Smoldering inflammation: the silent flame driving heart failure. Dent Med Probl. https://doi.org/10.17219/dmp/210102

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mone K, Reddy J (2023) The knowns and unknowns of cardiac autoimmunity in viral myocarditis. Rev Med Virol. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.2478

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang C, Luo H (2024) Crosstalk between innate immunity and autophagy in viral myocarditis leading to dilated cardiomyopathy. Rev Med Virol. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.2586

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Thompson R, Cao X (2024) Reassessing granzyme B: unveiling perforin-independent versatility in immune responses and therapeutic potentials. Front Immunol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1392535

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Canton M, Sánchez-Rodríguez R, Spera I et al (2021) Reactive oxygen species in macrophages: sources and targets. Front Immunol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.734229

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Suliman BA (2024) Potential clinical implications of molecular mimicry-induced autoimmunity. Immun Inflamm Dis 12. https://doi.org/10.1002/iid3.1178

Ying C (2024) Viral Myocarditis. Yale J Biol Med 97:515–520. https://doi.org/10.59249/BSHH8575

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ammirati E, Frigerio M, Adler ED et al (2020) Management of Acute Myocarditis and Chronic Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy. Circ Heart Fail 13. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.120.007405

Chen X, Li Y, Deng L et al (2023) Cardiovascular involvement in Epstein–Barr virus infection. Front Immunol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1188330

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Imanaka-Yoshida K (2020) Inflammation in myocardial disease: From myocarditis to dilated cardiomyopathy. Pathol Int 70:1–11.