1,3,4Department of Law, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur- 303007, Rajasthan, India

3Department of Psychology, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur- 303007, Rajasthan, India

Corresponding author email: prashasti.jain@jaipur.manipal.edu

Article Publishing History

Received: 01/04/2026

Accepted After Revision: 19/06/2026

ABSTRACT:

Environmental degradation is a major concern worldwide. Many extreme weather events, such as storms, floods, droughts, and high temperatures, occur with high frequency and force around the world. The major cause of these events is global warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and CO2 are emitted into the environment through various sources, such as the burning of fossil fuels, industrial byproducts, transport, agriculture, and even households. CO2 is a major source of global warming and environmental degradation. To combat the emissions of these greenhouse gases, countries have developed a regime known as the Carbon Tax. The carbon tax is a tax imposed on carbon emissions led by industries. Compared with the total capacity of the environment, it is levied on every extra ton of carbon dioxide emitted at a point in time. This tax facilitates the generation of revenue for research in the fields of renewable energy and green energy and places costs on industries, which in turn inspires them to reduce CO2 emissions. India has implemented various policies to achieve net zero emissions by 2070 but has not implemented a carbon tax. The researchers in this study analysed the impact of greenhouse gas emissions on the environment and their major sources. Researchers have analyzed the role of India in reducing its carbon footprint through various policies and regulations. The pros and cons of implementing a carbon tax in India have been studied, and a solution to the carbon tax in India has been suggested as per the review by the researcher.

KEYWORDS:

Carbon Tax, Greenhouse Gases, Emissions, Extreme Climate Events, Net Zero.

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Totuka A, Jain P, Jain P, Sharm S. A Review of Carbon Tax Implementation for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in India: Prospects, Challenges, and Pathways to Net Zero by 2070. Biosc.Biotech.Res.Comm. 2026;19(2).

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Totuka A, Jain P, Jain P, Sharm S. A Review of Carbon Tax Implementation for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in India: Prospects, Challenges, and Pathways to Net Zero by 2070. Biosc.Biotech.Res.Comm. 2026;19(2). Available from: <ahref=”https://shorturl.at/evkB2“>https://shorturl.at/evkB2</a>

INTRODUCTION

Striving for progress is needed for every economy. Progress through the generation of employment for the masses to ensure better living conditions is one of the major goals of the states, especially when we are talking about a country such as India. An increase in manufacturing, agriculture, and service sector activities will not only ensure a regular flow of goods and services but also ensure a high rate of employability. High industrial activity is an essential element for measuring the growth of a country (Opoku and Yan, 2018). However, the coin has two sides, and thus, high industrial activity also means higher pollution levels. Hence, every country is bound by Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) both morally and legally. Sustainable development occurs when the needs of the present are satisfied without endangering the future (Chichilnisky, 1997). Rapid industrialisation has released hazardous materials into the environment, endangering the existence and survival of humans, and has been responsible for unpredictable natural hazards (Li et al., 2016).

Global warming is one of the most concerning issues for life to sustain for a long period of time on planet Earth. The carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions that are responsible for global warming are largely not what is purely the truth (Lashof and Ahuja, 1990). Other gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons, are more responsible for global warming, as these gases have a greater tendency to absorb infrared radiation than does carbon dioxide (CO2).

Analogy of Carbon Tax: A carbon tax is a tax imposed on carbon emissions by industry[1]. This tax was introduced by Dawid Gordon Wilson for the first time. The carbon tax is different from regular taxes, as market forces determine the best way to reduce emissions and help in pollution control. Carbon tax consists of two components: the tax level and the use of revenue (Small, Verhoef and Lindsey, 2024). The level of tax is based on the marginal cost of the impacts caused by the emission of one extra ton of carbon at a given point in time, also known as the social cost of carbon (SCC). The SCC is an attempt to calculate the indirect cost that an involved party bears due to the actions of another party (Gleckman, 2019).

According to studies by Stanford University, the SCC that has been estimated in the US could be six times greater (Estimated social cost of climate change not accurate, scientists say, 2015). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the world has seen CO2 levels depleted, and a blessing in disguise due to the seizure of industrial activity, and other polluting agents, such as vehicles, have allowed the environment to recover and heal itself from the damage caused by humans (Verma, 2020). Various countries (46 in number) have adopted carbon taxes, and a few others are considering the implementation of the same tax sooner or later (Black, 2022).

The major factor in the implementation of the Carbon Tax is its impact on economic development. The implementation of the carbon tax will have an impact on the pricing of commodities, and the products going through the complete manufacturing chain may become expensive, having an impact on the economy (Li et al., 2016).

For developing economies such as India, keeping prices in check is highly important, considering the percentage of the population living below the poverty line. Again, the coin has two sides. Carbon tax implementation may present some benefits to low-income households. Carbon tax may increase the consumption of energy and reduce pollutants, resulting in better living conditions and healthier environmental conditions in low-income household areas (Boyd, Krutilla and Viscusi, 1995).

Major Sources of GHG Emissions: In addition to industries that are emitters of CO2, another major contributor is the transportation sector. Nearly 90% of CO2 emissions originate from the burning of fossil fuels for electricity and transport (CSIRO, no date). The energy sector is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, contributing to more than 72% of greenhouse gas emissions (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2025a). As the figure depicts, the transportation sector accounts for 15% of emissions out of 72% of the energy sector.

Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emissions from different sectors (Source: Greenhouse Effect 101. (2024, March 25). Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/stories/greenhouse-effect-101#gases .

Fossil fuels: The burning and combustion of fossil fuels is the greatest contributing factor to global warming. This issue can be addressed by shifting to other renewable sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and various other energy sources available in nature. These sources are freely available and do not have any residues.

Agriculture: Agriculture contributes to the greenhouse effect through the emission of methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide and the eutrophication phenomenon through phosphorus and nitrogen runoff. In addition, agriculture also pollutes water bodies (Li et at., 2021). This sector accounts for 11% of the total greenhouse gas emissions. The global emissions due to agriculture were 9.3 billion tons of CO2 in 2018, as per the Food and Agriculture Organization (Adegbeye et al., 2019).

Fashion: The fashion industry produces 10% (approx.) of our annual carbon footprint. It also pollutes our environment by creating millions of tons of plastic and other pollutants that pollute our oceans and environment (Andreadakis and Owusu-Wiredu, 2023).

Consumable Food: estimates show that food waste alone represents 8% to 10% of global emissions. The French anti-waste law implemented in 2016, prohibits supermarkets from throwing away food that is approaching the ‘best buy’ date. Instead, a food bank is created through which waste food is distributed to hungry people, which is perfectly edible (Priefer, Jörissen and Frör, 2017).

Transport: Transport consists of both passenger and cargo transport. Emissions by the transport sector increased at a rate of 1.7% annually from 1990 to 2022. Transportation accounts for 15% of total greenhouse gas emissions (Aderibigbe, Adegbembo and Gumbo, 2026). Among total transport emissions, 74.5% comes from road vehicles, 45.1% of cars, motorcycles, buses and taxis, and the remaining 29.45% comes from cargo transport (Ritchie, 2020).

Construction: The extraction, transportation and fuel used in the process of construction are considered. Various chemicals are also used in the construction industry in various processes that significantly contribute to global warming (Labaran et al., 2022). The construction industry contributes almost 50% of energy consumption (Han et al., 2015b).

Households: Urban centres are another source of emissions. The modernization of civilization is another factor that has contributed to the rapid emission of CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (Han et al., 2015).

Impact of Greenhouse Gases on the Environment: Greenhouse gases include CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, and various other synthetic gases. The amount of greenhouse gas that impacts global warming depends on three key factors:

Existing gas in the atmosphere. The concentrations of the harmful gases in the atmosphere mixed with air are measured in parts per million (PPM), parts per billion (PPB) and parts per trillion (PPT). It is calculated as 1 molecule of hazardous gas in 1 million molecules of air as (PPM), 1 molecule of gas in 1 billion molecules of air (PPB) and 1 molecule of gas in 1 trillion molecules of air. Lifetime of the harmful gas in the air. That is, how long the gas survives in the atmosphere before it is destroyed or forms other substances that are friendly. Global Warming Potential (GWP). The capacity of gas to absorb heat over 100 years is related to the emission of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (Withey et al., 2019).

Extreme weather conditions are being experienced worldwide. These are short-lived and occur and differ from one region to another. It can be said that they are local to one locality or region. Some examples of extreme weather conditions can include extreme heat (heat waves), extreme cold (cold waves), and unexpected floods, including flash floods and droughts. Enormous cyclones and tornadoes are also caused by climate change, especially when their frequency is considered (Castillo, Wehner and Stone, 2021). Extreme temperature events have occurred more frequently in the recent past than other weather events (Ummenhofer and Meehl, 2017).

Extreme climatic and weather conditions are changing drastically and are increasing in frequency, intensity and duration (Herring et al., 2021). However, extreme weather events are rare and not uniform. These events may be caused by other natural conditions and the dynamics of nature. However, the point to consider is the intensity and frequency of these events in the last 2–3 decades (Stott et al., 2016).

Impact of Extreme Climatic Events: Impacts of Extreme Climatic Events on the Economy

The impact that the population has on the environment can be assessed by considering two factors, namely, the size of the human population and the environmental impact per capita, i.e., how much each person impacts or is impacted by the environment, which is directly proportional to nature and the degree of industrialisation (Freedman, 2013). With an increasing population, pollution in that locality has increased due to various factors, such as increases in transportation, construction, the burning of fossil fuels, and domestic activities (Bilen et al., 2008; Martínez-Zarzoso, Bengochea-Morancho and Morales-Lage, 2007). With rising pollution and harsh living conditions, people tend to move to other areas with more comfortable climates, which affects the economic conditions of those areas. For example, due to pollution and extreme climate events such as frequent or long-lasting droughts and floods, the land in that region becomes uncultivable.

Additionally, such events make life more difficult because of shortages of necessities such as fresh drinking water. Residents who have an opportunity to migrate to other places do so and have the dual impact of overpopulating an environmentally friendly region and leaving the native place underpopulated, which has a direct impact on the environment and economy of that region (Piguet and Laczko, 2013).

Extreme climatic events have substantial impacts on various ecosystems (Smith, 2011). The impact of these extreme events, such as floods and droughts, is greater on developing economies, as the damage caused by these events requires funds to recover. These funds are either provided through loans or are diverted from other accounts to meet the contingency (Mirza, 2003).

Impact on developing and underdeveloped economies: Underdeveloped countries, which include nearly 49 nations, make nominal or negligible contributions to greenhouse gas emissions. These countries possess very few industries, and their infrastructure is very poor. The main agents of greenhouse gas emissions are a few. The living standards of the people in these countries are not good, which makes them more susceptible to the hazards of global warming and environmental damage. This is due to their location on the globe, and their capacity to adapt and respond to natural calamities is minimal (Huq et al., 2004).The rising levels of CO2 may impact on the earth’s vegetation through changes in the water retention power of the soil, water vapor present in the air, photosynthesis, etc., which will impact the geographical patterns of agriculture, horticulture, vegetation, forest cover, and sea and ocean fisheries (Backlund, 2009).

Impact on Humans and Animals: In addition to the impact on the economy, the lives of people are also largely affected. Inorganic acids and anhydrides such as SO2, SO3, or NOx are present in the air near industrial areas and enter the pulmonary and respiratory organs of residents, severely affecting their health and causing diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, cancer, and other respiratory and pulmonary diseases (Schlatter, 1994). A potential yet fully established risk is plastic, which is a major source of water and soil pollution. Various natural agents break plastic into micro and nano-plastics. Studies are being conducted to determine the quantum impact they have on human and animal health. It is hypothesized that these genes can also be altered (Mattioda et al., 2023).

CO2 and our environment: CO2 occurs naturally in the environment, accounting for approximately 0.04% of the total gases in the atmosphere (Carbon dioxide 101, no date). The presence of CO2 in the atmosphere supports life and hence cannot be completely removed. It is generated naturally through the respiratory systems of plants, animals, and humans; the decomposition of organic matter; forest fires; and volcanic activity. The carbon in the atmosphere is regulated through the carbon cycle. CO2 is the greenhouse gas present in the environment in the greatest quantity. The NOAA Global Monitoring Lab reported that CO2 itself was responsible for 2/3 of the total heating influence among all greenhouse gases (Butler et at., 2022).

How Greenhouse Gases Impact the Environment

Figure 2: Impact of greenhouse gases on the environment (Source: Greenhouse Effect 101. (2024, March 25).
Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/stories/greenhouse-effect-101#gases).

Meeting the global demand for fossil fuels will result in 75 billion tons of CO2 emissions by the end of the century (Holechek et al., 2022). As discussed above, CO2 is not the only greenhouse gas. There are also other gases, but different greenhouse gases can have different effects on global warming. These methods differ in terms of ‘radiative efficiency’ and ‘lifetime’. Radiative efficiency (RE) refers to the ability of a gas to absorb heat or energy, whereas ‘lifetime’ refers to the period during which it stays in the atmosphere (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2025).

The development of the global warming potential (GWP) was performed to measure the energy that the emission of 1 ton of gas will absorb over a period in comparison to 1 ton of CO2, whose GWP is 1, which is used as a unit for comparison and measurement. The GWP is measured for 100 years. Another greenhouse gas, methane CH4, has a GWP of 27-30 in 100 years. Compared with CO2, methane has a shorter lifetime of approximately one decade but absorbs more energy. Nitrous oxide, however, has a GWP that is 273 times greater than that of CO2 and has a lifespan of 100 years on average. Chlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride can have GWPs of thousands or tens of thousands (Understanding global warming potentials | US EPA, 2025).

Emissions and India: According to the Global Carbon Atlas, India is ranked #3 with 2830 mtCO2 in fossil fuel emissions (G. W. Team, no date). The carbon budget measures CO2 produced by various agents and how much must be cut in the future to reduce carbon emissions and achieve net zero emissions, i.e., the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and the same amount removed (Friedlingstein et al., 2025).

Based on the per capita fair share 2018 index, India owns approximately 15 trillion US$ for its excessive use of carbon space (What are carbon budgets and how can they help us reach net zero?, 2025). India is taking aggressive steps in all sectors to reduce emissions and reach net zero. It is estimated that industry and transport will become the largest sources of emissions in the future, and a multidimensional approach to reducing carbon output is aimed at achieving demand reduction, the inclusion of sustainable energy through research and development, and cost efficiency (Gupta et al., 2024).

India accounts for 7.4% of total CO2 emissions worldwide, and there has been a sharp decline in the recent past (Staff, 2026). These emissions resulting from India is taking various steps to combat pollution and global warming. Its domestic policies have at their core the aims and objectives of protecting regional glaciers, greening the railway system through electrification of the complete system, banning the use of single-use plastic, distributing LPG cylinders to the BPL and poor households at subsidized rates, subsidizing electricity generation through solar power in households and buildings, promoting electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce reliance on fossil fuels for transport, etc. (How is India tackling climate change? – Grantham Research Institute on climate change and the environment, 2024).

As per the IPCC report, India is on the right track in reducing carbon emissions. In terms of its nationally determined contribution to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, India aims to reduce the per capita carbon emission of its GDP by 45% (Bhatt and Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2022) and achieve 50% power generation by replacing fossil fuels with renewable sources[1].

India’s goal to achieve the desired goals and target a clean environment has been predominantly funded by domestic sources of green finance. The total amount of annual green financing was US$ 5 billion (37,000 Crore INR) from FY2019-2020. Most of these (up to 94%) were funded by central and state governments (Climate Policy Initiative, 2026). Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill 2022 was introduced in the Lok Sabha to create domestic carbon markets in India to help minimise the nation’s energy consumption and incentivise the deployment of clean technologies[2]. India estimates that US$ 4.5 trillion is required by 2040 for the integration of sustainable development with equity and for achieving its national goals of eradicating poverty[3].

Critical Evaluation of Carbon Tax Regime in India: The non-implementation of the carbon tax in India and its implementation in other countries may result in carbon leakage. Different policies on carbon pricing in India and other countries with which India trades will result in an excess carbon footprint in India compared to countries with a carbon tax in place (Jansson et al., 2023). Another concern in India is that a large chunk of the population resides in rural areas and is dependent on the primary sector. The implementation of a uniform carbon tax has an unequal impact on living costs (Yao et al., 2023). However, there is certain evidence that suggests that there is a very minimal impact of a carbon tax on agricultural income (Ifft et al., 2018). Additionally, the implementation of the carbon tax will have a minimal effect on the rural population, as rural areas are less sensitive to energy-related commodities (Ohlendorf et al., 2020).

The Indian rural population, which is heavily dependent on fossil fuels as well as the burning of stubble, wood and other nonrenewable sources for energy needs, is a matter of concern. The initiatives taken by the Indian government in gradually phasing out subsidies for fossil fuels such as diesel and petrol coupled with hikes in tax tariffs, have shown a positive trend toward a shift toward more environmentally friendly energy sources such as wind, hydro, biomass, etc. The substantial reduction in subsidies for fossil fuels from $25 billion in 2013 to $3.5 billion in 2023 has motivated a shift toward renewable energy sources[4]. The implementation of the carbon tax will impact household expenditures, as electricity prices may increase by approximately 8% (Benavente, 2016d).

A unified carbon price mechanism may be unjustified in a country such as India, where the carbon output is different in different states. CO2 emissions are highest in Maharashtra (1.8 Tg/year). Andhra Pradesh ranks second, with a value of 1.6 Tg/year. These states also have the highest population compared with other states (Decentralised Carbon Footprint Analysis for opting climate change mitigation strategies in India). Another factor to consider is the forest cover or the carbon sinks that the states possess or develop for carbon capture. Some states, such as Rajasthan, may not have a large area under forests due to climatic conditions, whereas other states where the population is relatively large may be covered under forests, such as the northeastern states.

India is doing enough and is on the path to achieve its net-zero carbon targets. India aims to achieve this target by considering various constraints, such as development, the cost of production, the maintenance of the supply of goods and services, and employment by 2070. Many developed Western countries have criticised India for its lack of transparency, policy, and delayed targets, but the arguments in favour of developing and underdeveloped economies are controlled by the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. India, along with Like-Minded Developing Countries (LMDCs), has raised concerns that the burden of historical mistakes committed by developed countries should not be forced on them. The argument put forward is that expecting to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 (the target set by the developed countries in the IPCC) is against the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities.

India has implemented several policies as initiatives to reduce emissions and contribute to a green and healthy environment, such as the National Action Plan on Climate Change, the National Solar Mission, the Clean Energy Fund, etc. However, it has been criticized by various agencies for not implementing the Carbon Tax. India is also developing its forest cover. Forests are also known as carbon sinks, as they absorb CO2 in the air. Approximately 2.6 billion tons of CO2 are absorbed by forests worldwide every year (Benavente, 2016d).

India is a developing country with the 2nd largest population; hence, the primary concern is to develop the economy and provide employment opportunities. Additionally, the majority of the population in India is poor or middle class, and the implementation of a carbon tax would increase the prices of commodities and put a burden on the deprived. The implementation of a carbon tax can have an impact on the economy. A previous study established that a carbon tax will cause a 2% reduction in GDP due to various factors (What is a carbon sink?, 2025). However, the country has a fuel exchange tax, which is an implicit form of carbon tax. India does have a carbon tax on coal imports at a rate of 400 international normalized ratio (INR) (4.83 US$) for every metric ton of coal imported, which results in a loss to the exchequer (Reuters, 2024). Other arguments against the implementation of the carbon tax are as follows:

Higher cost of production. The cost is recovered by the manufacturers through an increase in the price of commodities. The implementation of a carbon tax would mean additional costs in production, hence increasing the cost of goods and services. This may inversely affect the demand for domestic products. The implementation of a carbon tax may affect domestic players inversely to foreign manufacturers, especially with entities in countries where the tax rates are low and do not have the same policy. Steps have already been taken. India has a comprehensive policy to save the environment, and as discussed above, India already owns approximately 15 trillion US$ for its excessive use of carbon space. India is on the path to achieve its targets well in advance, as established by various agencies. Many economists are concerned that the implementation of the Carbon Tax would impact the economic growth of the country. The implementation of a carbon tax can hamper industries, as they are forced to pay additional taxes and look for alternatives to cut costs, which may result in job cuts, thereby increasing unemployment and hampering the economic growth of the country. Disputes and litigation. The implementation of another tax regime in the business sector may result in more disputes and litigation on the already overburdened judiciary. Disputes that are not resolved in time may influence shifts in manufacturing trends. Lack of Accurate Data. There is a lack of accurate data concerning the accuracy of carbon emissions from different sources. India has a mix of large, small, and micro industries. Many of these methods do not have the expertise and resources to calculate emissions accurately. Investing in the money collected through the carbon tax. The political dynamics in India make the equal distribution of taxes highly susceptible. The diversion of funds to a few and the brunt of taxes on others is a possibility, considering the political conditions in India.Some positive results can be drawn in favor of implementing the Carbon Tax in India. These are: Generation of funds. The money collected through the Carbon Tax can be utilised in developing green energy projects. As discussed above, Annual Green Finance is funded primarily by the Central and State Governments. An increase in the contribution of the private sector would not only reduce the burden of the government but also provide more funds to be invested in the development of green energy. Innovation and development. The implementation of the Carbon Tax would inspire industries to innovate means of manufacturing using green energy. The business model focuses on reducing costs and increasing profits. The competitive market keeps the prices in check. Hence, industries will be motivated to innovate and develop technology whereby they can reduce the carbon tax, keep a record of the input cost and increase the profit margins. Setting an example. By implementing the Carbon Tax, India would set an example to other nations to follow in its steps and contribute to making the environment and world better places. Environmental Protection: The implementation of a carbon tax will influence the minimization of the carbon footprint, and the greatest gain would be a cleaner environment.

CONCLUSION

A review and analysis of various postulates of the Carbon Tax Regime and its environmental concerns suggest that India can implement a Carbon Tax. The Carbon Tax regime can be formulated in such a manner as to apply a higher rate of tax where there are alternative sources of energy available, and production may continue without a considerable difference in costs. The tax rate can be lower where there is no alternative source, or the cost of production will rise substantially if the alternative source is used. The same lower rate can be applied to industries engaged in essential commodities. The tax regime can be applied in the same manner as the GST. This may facilitate innovation in green technologies and help India fast-track the path to achieving the desired goals.

Conflict of interest: Authors do not have any conflict of interest to declare.

Funding: Nil

Data Availability: All data are available with the corresponding author on a reasonable request.

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