World Health Organization. Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis). 2025. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis). Accessed 14 October 2025.
Zuma AA, Dos Santos Barrias E, De Souza W. Basic biology of Trypanosoma cruzi. Curr Pharm Des. 2021;27:1671–732. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612826999201203213527.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Chancey RJ, Edwards MS, Montgomery SP. Congenital Chagas disease. Pediatr Rev. 2023;44:213–21. https://doi.org/10.1542/pir.2022-005857.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Bonney KM, Luthringer DJ, Kim SA, Garg NJ, Engman DM. Pathology and pathogenesis of Chagas heart disease. Annu Rev Pathol: Mech Dis. 2019;14:421–47. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-020117-043711.
World Health Organization. Neglected tropical diseases. 2025. https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/neglected-tropical-diseases. Accessed 14 October 2025.
Sousa AS, Vermeij D, Ramos AN, Luquetti AO. Chagas disease. Lancet. 2024;403:203–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01787-7.
Jones K, Versteeg L, Damania A, Keegan B, Kendricks A, Pollet J, Cruz-Chan JV, Gusovsky F, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. Vaccine-linked chemotherapy improves benznidazole efficacy for acute Chagas disease. Infect Immun. 2018;86:e00876–17. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00876-17.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Revollo S, Oury B, Vela A, Tibayrenc M, Sereno D. In vitro benznidazole and nifurtimox susceptibility profile of Trypanosoma cruzi strains belonging to discrete typing units TcI, TcII, and TcV. Pathogens. 2019;8:197. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens8040197.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Rial MS, Seremeta KP, Esteva MI, Búa J, Salomon CJ, Fichera LE. In vitro studies and preclinical evaluation of benznidazole microparticles in the acute Trypanosoma cruzi murine model. Parasitology. 2021;148:566–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182020002310.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Santos É, Falcão LM. Chagas cardiomyopathy and heart failure: from epidemiology to treatment. Rev Port Cardiol. 2020;39:279–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repc.2019.12.006.
Macaluso G, Grippi F, Di Bella S, Blanda V, Gucciardi F, Torina A, Guercio A, Cannella V. A review on the immunological response against Trypanosoma cruzi. Pathogens. 2023;12:282. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020282.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Kratz JM. Drug discovery for Chagas disease: a viewpoint. Acta Trop. 2019;198:105107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.105107.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Useche Y, Pérez AR, de Meis J, Bonomo A, Savino W. Central nervous system commitment in Chagas disease. Front Immunol. 2022;13:975106. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.975106.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Cristovão-Silva AC, Brelaz-de-Castro MCA, Hernandes MZ, Pereira VRA. Chagas disease: immunology of the disease at a glance. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2021;62:15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.10.001.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Antequera A, Molin-Veglia AD, López-Alcalde J, Álvarez-Díaz N, Muriel A, Muñoz J. Reactivation of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in immunosuppressed patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2024;30:980–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2024.04.013.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Marshall JS, Upton JEM, Vliagoftis H, Hildebrand KJ, Byrne A, Watson W. Introduction to immunology and immune disorders. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2024;20:69. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-024-00932-5.
Wang R, Lan C, Benlagha K, Camara NOS, Miller H, Kubo M, Heegaard S, Lee P, Yang L, Forsman H, Li X, Zhai Z, Liu C. The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system. MedComm. 2024;5:e714. https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.714.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Martins YC, Ribeiro-Gomes FL, Daniel-Ribeiro CT. A short history of innate immunity. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2023;118:e230023. https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760230023.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Rodrigues MM, Oliveira AC, Bellio M. The immune response to Trypanosoma cruzi: role of toll-like receptors and perspectives for vaccine development. J Parasitol Res. 2012;507874. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/507874.
Jiménez P, Jaimes J, Poveda C, Ramírez JD. A systematic review of the Trypanosoma cruzi genetic heterogeneity, host immune response and genetic factors as plausible drivers of chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy. Parasitology. 2019;146:269–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182018001506.
Pérez-Mazliah D, Ward AI, Lewis MD. Host-parasite dynamics in Chagas disease from systemic to hyper-local scales. Parasite Immunol. 2021;43:e12786. https://doi.org/10.1111/pim.12786.
Allaoui A, François C, Zemzoumi K, Guilvard E, Ouaissi A. Intracellular growth and metacyclogenesis defects in Trypanosoma cruzi carrying a targeted deletion of a Tc52 protein-encoding allele. Mol Microbiol. 1999;32:1273–86. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01440.x.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Cerbán FM, Stempin CC, Volpini X, Carrera Silva EA, Gea S, Motran CC. Signaling pathways that regulate Trypanosoma cruzi infection and immune response. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis. 2020;1866:165707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165707.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gonçalves VM, Matteucci KC, Buzzo CL, Miollo BH, Ferrante D, Torrecilhas AC, Rodrigues MM, Alvarez JM, Bortoluci KR. NLRP3 Controls Trypanosoma cruzi infection through a caspase-1-dependent IL-1R-independent NO production. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2469. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002469.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Silva GK, Gutierrez FRS, Guedes PMM, Horta CV, Cunha LD, Mineo TWP, Santiago-Silva J, Kobayashi KS, Flavell RA, Silva JS, Zamboni DS. Cutting edge: nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1-dependent responses account for murine resistance against Trypanosoma cruzi infection. J Immunol. 2009;184:1148–52. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.0902254.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pereira NS, Queiroga TBD, da Silva DD, Nascimento MSL, de Andrade CM, Souto ST, Ricci MF, Arantes RME, Zamboni DS, Chiari E, da Câmara ACJ, Galvão LMC, Guedes PMM. NOD2 receptor is crucial for protecting against the digestive form of Chagas disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;12:e0006589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0008667
Lieke T, Graefe SEB, Klauenberg U, Fleischer B, Jacobs T. NK cells contribute to the control of Trypanosoma cruzi infection by killing free parasites by perforin-independent mechanisms. Infect Immun. 2004;72:6817–25. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.72.12.6817-6825.2004.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Martinez FO, Gordon S. The M1 and M2 paradigm of macrophage activation: time for reassessment. F1000Prime Rep. 2014;6:13. https://doi.org/10.12703/P6-13.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Queiroga TBD, Pereira NS, da Silva DD, Andrade CM, de Araújo Júnior RF, Brito CRN, Galvão LMC, da Câmara ACJ, Nascimento MSL, Guedes PMM. Virulence of Trypanosoma cruzi strains is related to the differential expression of innate immune receptors in the heart. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2021;11:696719. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2021.696719.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Cruz Reyes A, Rosales Encina JL. Trypanosoma cruzi infection: mechanisms of evasion of immune response. In: De Souza W, editor. Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi.Intechopen. 2019;
Comments (0)