Kundel V, Ahn A, Arzt M, Asin J, Azarbarzin A, Collop N, et al. Insights, recommendations, and research priorities for central sleep apnea: report from an expert panel. J Clin Sleep Med. 2025;21(2):405–16. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.11424.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Javaheri S, Badr MS. Central sleep apnea: pathophysiologic classification. Sleep. 2023;46(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsac113.

Baillieul S, Revol B, Jullian-Desayes I, Joyeux-Faure M, Tamisier R, Pepin JL. Diagnosis and management of central sleep apnea syndrome. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2019;13(6):545–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/17476348.2019.1604226.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Javaheri S, Giannoni A, Somers VK, Malhotra A, Emdin M, Costanzo MR. Central sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease state-of-the-art. Sleep. 2025;48(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsae307.

Medicine AAoS. International classification of sleep disorders. 3rd ed, text revision ed. Darien: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2023.

MM T, SF Q, DT RBB, AR P. A, M A, et al. The AASM manual for the scoring of sleep and associated events: rules, terminology and technical specifications. Version 3. Darien: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2023.

Google Scholar 

Javaheri S, Rapoport DM, Schwartz AR. Distinguishing central from obstructive hypopneas on a clinical polysomnogram. J Clin Sleep Med. 2023;19(4):823–34. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.10420.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kaneko Y, Floras JS, Usui K, Plante J, Tkacova R, Kubo T, et al. Cardiovascular effects of continuous positive airway pressure in patients with heart failure and obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(13):1233–41. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa022479.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Javaheri S, Brown LK, Randerath W, Khayat R. SERVE-HF: more questions than answers. Chest. 2016;149(4):900–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2015.12.021.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cowie MR, Woehrle H, Wegscheider K, Angermann C, d’Ortho MP, Erdmann E, et al. Adaptive servo-ventilation for central sleep apnea in systolic heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(12):1095–105. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1506459.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bradley TD, Logan AG, Lorenzi Filho G, Kimoff RJ, Duran Cantolla J, Arzt M, et al. Adaptive servo-ventilation for sleep-disordered breathing in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (ADVENT-HF): a multicentre, multinational, parallel-group, open-label, phase 3 randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2024;12(2):153–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(23)00374-0.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Badr MS, Khayat RN, Allam JS, Hyer S, Mustafa RA, Naughton MT, et al. Treatment of central sleep apnea in adults: an American academy of sleep medicine systematic review, meta-analysis, and GRADE assessment. J Clin Sleep Med. 2025. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.11860.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Javaheri S, McKane S. Transvenous phrenic nerve stimulation to treat idiopathic central sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(12):2099–107. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.8802.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fox H, Oldenburg O, Javaheri S, Ponikowski P, Augostini R, Goldberg LR, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of phrenic nerve stimulation for the treatment of central sleep apnea. Sleep. 2019;42(11). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsz158.

Costanzo MR, Ponikowski P, Javaheri S, Augostini R, Goldberg L, Holcomb R, et al. Transvenous neurostimulation for central sleep apnoea: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;388(10048):974–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30961-8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Badr M, Toiber F, Skatrud J, Dempsey J. Pharyngeal narrowing/occlusion during central sleep apnea. J Appl Physiol. 1995;78(5):1806–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Westhoff M, Arzt M, Litterst P. Prevalence and treatment of central sleep Apnoea emerging after initiation of continuous positive airway pressure in patients with obstructive sleep Apnoea without evidence of heart failure. Sleep Breath. 2012;16(1):71–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kuzniar TJ, Morgenthaler TI. Adaptive servoventilation in treatment of sleep-disordered breathing. In: Kushida CA, editor. Encyclopedia of sleep. Waltham: Academic; 2013. pp. 510–9.

Morgenthaler TI, Kuzniar TJ, Wolfe LF, Willes L, McLain WC, Goldberg R. The complex sleep apnea resolution study: A prospective randomized controlled trial of continuous positive airway pressure versus adaptive servoventilation therapy. Sleep. 2014;37(5):927–F34. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.3662.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Iber C. Are we ready to define central hypopneas? Sleep. 2013;36(3):305–6. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.2434.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Randerath WJ, Treml M, Priegnitz C, Stieglitz S, Hagmeyer L, Morgenstern C. Evaluation of a noninvasive algorithm for differentiation of obstructive and central hypopneas. Sleep. 2013;36(3):363–8. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.2450.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Berry RB, Ryals S, Wagner MH. Use of chest wall EMG to classify hypopneas as obstructive or central. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(5):725–33. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7092.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dupuy-McCauley KL, Mudrakola HV, Colaco B, Arunthari V, Slota KA, Morgenthaler TI. A comparison of 2 visual methods for classifying obstructive vs central hypopneas. J Clin Sleep Med. 2021;17(6):1157–65. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.9140.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pepin JL, Schwartz AR, Khayat R, Germany R, McKane S, Warde M, et al. Multidimensional phenotyping to distinguish among central (CSA), obstructive (OSA) and co-existing central and obstructive sleep apnea (CSA-OSA) phenotypes in real-world data. Sleep Med. 2024;124:426–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2024.09.040.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dupuy-McCauley K, Schwartz AR, Javaheri S, Germany R, McKane S, Morgenthaler TI. Classifying hypopneas as obstructive or central can enhance transvenous phrenic nerve stimulation therapy patient selection and outcomes. J Clin Sleep Med. 2025. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.11904.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schwartz AR, Jacobowitz O, Eisele DW, Mickelson SA, Miller MB, Oliven A, et al. Targeted hypoglossal nerve stimulation for patients with obstructive sleep apnea: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2023;149(6):512–20. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2023.0161.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Strollo PJ, Soose RJ, Maurer JT, de Vries N, Cornelius J, Froymovich O, et al. Upper-airway stimulation for obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(2):139–49. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1308659.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Javaheri S. Acetazolamide improves central sleep apnea in heart failure: a double-blind, prospective study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;173(2):234–7. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200507-1035OC.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Javaheri S, Parker TJ, Wexler L, Liming JD, Lindower P, Roselle GA. Effect of Theophylline on sleep-disordered breathing in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(8):562–7. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199608223350805.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Costanzo MR, Ponikowski P, Javaheri S, Augostini R, Goldberg LR, Holcomb R, et al. Sustained 12 month benefit of phrenic nerve stimulation for central sleep apnea. Am J Cardiol. 2018;121(11):1400–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.02.022.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Costanzo MR, Augostini R, Goldberg LR, Ponikowski P, Stellbrink C, Javaheri S. Design of the remedē system pivotal trial: a prospective, randomized study in the use of respiratory rhythm management to treat central sleep apnea. J Card Fail. 2015;21(11):892–902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cardfail.2015.08.344.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fudim M, Spector AR, Costanzo MR, Pokorney SD, Mentz RJ, Jagielski D, et al. Phrenic nerve stimulation for the treatment of central sleep apnea: A pooled cohort analysis. J Clin Sleep Med. 2019;15(12):1747–55. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.8076.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Abraham WT, Oldenburg O, Lainscak M, Khayat R, Asin J, Ponikowski P, et al. Win ratio analysis of transvenous phrenic nerve stimulation to treat central sleep Apnoea in heart failure. ESC Heart Fail. 2025;12(1):80–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.15074.