Goodpaster BH, Park SW, Harris TB, Kritchevsky SB, Nevitt M, Schwartz AV, et al. The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: the health, aging and body composition study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61(10):1059–64.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee MJ, Kim EH, Bae SJ, Choe J, Jung CH, Lee WJ, et al. Protective role of skeletal muscle mass against progression from metabolically healthy to unhealthy phenotype. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2019;90(1):102–13.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Minn YK, Suk SH. Higher skeletal muscle mass may protect against ischemic stroke in community-dwelling adults without stroke and dementia: the PRESENT project. BMC Geriatr. 2017;17(1):45.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Taaffe DR, Newman AB, Haggerty CL, Colbert LH, de Rekeneire N, Visser M, et al. Estrogen replacement, muscle composition, and physical function: the Health ABC study. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(10):1741–7.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Javed AA, Mayhew AJ, Shea AK, Raina P. Association between hormone therapy and muscle mass in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(8):e1910154.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Veldhuis JD, Evans WS, Bowers CY, Anderson S. Interactive regulation of postmenopausal growth hormone insulin-like growth factor axis by estrogen and growth hormone-releasing peptide-2. Endocrine. 2001;14(1):45–62.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tsai WJ, McCormick KM, Brazeau DA, Brazeau GA. Estrogen effects on skeletal muscle insulin-like growth factor 1 and myostatin in ovariectomized rats. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2007;232(10):1314–25.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Velders M, Schleipen B, Fritzemeier KH, Zierau O, Diel P. Selective estrogen receptor-beta activation stimulates skeletal muscle growth and regeneration. FASEB J. 2012;26(5):1909–20.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Oosthuyse T, Bosch AN. Oestrogen’s regulation of fat metabolism during exercise and gender specific effects. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2012;12(3):363–71.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Feng Y, Zhang J, Tian X, Wu J, Lu J, Shi R. Mechanical stretch activates glycometabolism-related enzymes via estrogen in C(2) C(12) myoblasts. J Cell Physiol. 2020;235(7–8):5702–10.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Salpeter SR, Walsh JM, Ormiston TM, Greyber E, Buckley NS, Salpeter EE. Meta-analysis: effect of hormone-replacement therapy on components of the metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal women. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2006;8(5):538–54.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tiidus PM, Lowe DA, Brown M. Estrogen replacement and skeletal muscle: mechanisms and population health. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2013;115(5):569–78.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Jensen LB, Vestergaard P, Hermann AP, Gram J, Eiken P, Abrahamsen B, et al. Hormone replacement therapy dissociates fat mass and bone mass, and tends to reduce weight gain in early postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled 5-year clinical trial of the Danish Osteoporosis Prevention Study. J Bone Miner Res. 2003;18(2):333–42.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bea JW, Zhao Q, Cauley JA, LaCroix AZ, Bassford T, Lewis CE, et al. Effect of hormone therapy on lean body mass, falls, and fractures: 6-year results from the Women’s Health Initiative hormone trials. Menopause. 2011;18(1):44–52.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

O’Brien RJ, Resnick SM, Zonderman AB, Ferrucci L, Crain BJ, Pletnikova O, et al. Neuropathologic studies of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA). J Alzheimers Dis. 2009;18(3):665–75.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kuo PL, Schrack JA, Shardell MD, Levine M, Moore AZ, An Y, et al. A roadmap to build a phenotypic metric of ageing: insights from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Intern Med. 2020;287(4):373–94.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ibad HA, Mammen JS, Simonsick EM, Kwoh CK, Guermazi A, Demehri S. Higher thyroid hormone has a negative association with lower limb lean body mass in euthyroid older adults: analysis from the Baltimore Longitudinal study of aging. Front Aging. 2023;4:1150645.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. https://www.blsa.nih.gov/

Shock NW, Greulich RC, Andres R, Arenberg D, Costa PT, Jr., Lakatta EG, et al. Normal human aging: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. 1984. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED292030.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2025.

Stekhoven DJ, Buhlmann P. Missforest–non-parametric missing value imputation for mixed-type data. Bioinformatics. 2012;28(1):112–8.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Green P. Power analysis for generalised linear mixed models by simulation. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/simr/simr.pdf

Hadidchi R. HRT. v2 ed: Zonedo 2025. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15644755

Sipila S, Taaffe DR, Cheng S, Puolakka J, Toivanen J, Suominen H. Effects of hormone replacement therapy and high-impact physical exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Clin Sci (Lond). 2001;101(2):147–57.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Armstrong AL, Oborne J, Coupland CA, Macpherson MB, Bassey EJ, Wallace WA. Effects of hormone replacement therapy on muscle performance and balance in post-menopausal women. Clin Sci (Lond). 1996;91(6):685–90.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Figueroa A, Going SB, Milliken LA, Blew RM, Sharp S, Teixeira PJ, et al. Effects of exercise training and hormone replacement therapy on lean and fat mass in postmenopausal women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2003;58(3):266–70.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tanko LB, Movsesyan L, Svendsen OL, Christiansen C. The effect of hormone replacement therapy on appendicular lean tissue mass in early postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2002;9(2):117–21.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

The North American Menopause S. NAMS 3rd Utian Translational Science Symposium, October 2016, Orlando, Florida A conversation about hormone therapy: is there an appropriate dose, route, and duration of use? Menopause. 2017; 24(11):1221–1235.

Greising SM, Baltgalvis KA, Lowe DA, Warren GL. Hormone therapy and skeletal muscle strength: a meta-analysis. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2009;64(10):1071–81.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ronkainen PH, Kovanen V, Alen M, Pollanen E, Palonen EM, Ankarberg-Lindgren C, et al. Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy modifies skeletal muscle composition and function: a study with monozygotic twin pairs. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(1):25–33.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tolonen A, Pakarinen T, Sassi A, Kytta J, Cancino W, Rinta-Kiikka I, et al. Methodology, clinical applications, and future directions of body composition analysis using computed tomography (CT) images: a review. Eur J Radiol. 2021;145: 109943.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zaffina C, Wyttenbach R, Pagnamenta A, Grasso RF, Biroli M, Del Grande F, et al. Body composition assessment: comparison of quantitative values between magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography. Quant Imaging Med Surg. 2022;12(2):1450–66.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fielding RA, Vellas B, Evans WJ, Bhasin S, Morley JE, Newman AB, et al. Sarcopenia: an undiagnosed condition in older adults. Current consensus definition: prevalence, etiology, and consequences. International working group on sarcopenia. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2011;12(4):249–56.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hernan MA, Sterne JAC, Higgins JPT, Shrier I, Hernandez-Diaz S. A structural description of biases that generate immortal time. Epidemiology. 2025;36(1):107–14.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Madsen TE, Sobel T, Negash S, Shrout Allen T, Stefanick ML, Manson JE, et al. A review of hormone and non-hormonal therapy options for the treatment of menopause. Int J Womens Health. 2023;15:825–36.

PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Kanasi E, Ayilavarapu S, Jones J. The aging population: demographics and the biology of aging. Periodontol 2000. 2016;72(1):13–8.

PubMed  Google Scholar