Global Initiative for Asthma. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. 2025. Available from: https://ginasthma.org/2025-gina-strategy-report/. Accessed 22 Feb 2026.
Cebron LN, Beijers RJHCG, Van Den Borst B, Doehner W, Lainscak M, Schols AMWJ. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review. COPD J Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2016;13:399–406.
Yang G, Han YY, Forno E, Yan Q, Rosser F, Chen W, et al. Glycated hemoglobin A(1c), lung function, and hospitalizations among adults with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2020;8:3409-3415.e1.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Peters MC, Mauger D, Ross KR, et al. Evidence for exacerbation-prone asthma and predictive biomarkers of exacerbation frequency. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020;202:973–82.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wu TD, Brigham EP, Keet CA, Brown TT, Hansel NN, McCormack MC. Association between prediabetes/diabetes and asthma exacerbations in a claims-based obese asthma cohort. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pr. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2019.02.029.
Yang G, Han YY, Forno E, Yan Q, Rosser F, Chen W, et al. 2020 glycated hemoglobin A(1c), lung function, and hospitalizations among adults with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pr. 2020;8:3409-3415.e1.
Belligund P, Attaway A, Lopez R, Damania D, Hatipoğlu U, Zein JG. Diabetes associated with higher health care utilization and poor outcomes after COPD-related hospitalizations. Am J Manag Care. 2022;28:e325–32.
Peters MC, Schiebler ML, Cardet JC, et al. The impact of insulin resistance on loss of lung function and response to treatment in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2022;206:1096–106.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Porsbjerg C, Melén E, Lehtimäki L, Shaw D. Asthma. Lancet. 2023;401:858–73.
Juniper EF, Svensson K, Mörk A-C, Ståhl E. Measurement properties and interpretation of three shortened versions of the asthma control questionnaire. Respir Med. 2005;99:553–8.
Juniper EF, O’Byrne. PM, Guyatt GH, Ferrie PJ. King DR. Development and validation of a questionnaire to measure asthma control. Eur Respir J. 1999;14:902–7.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Schatz M, Kosinski M, Yarlas A, Hanlon J, Watson M, Jhingran P. The minimally important difference of the Asthma Control Test. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124:719–e231.
Louis R, Satia I, Ojanguren I, et al. European Respiratory Society guidelines for the diagnosis of asthma in adults. Eur Respir J. 2022;60:2101585.
Murphy RC, Zhang P, Tejwani V, Khatri SB, Hallstrand TS, Ruminjo JK, Thomson CC. Summary for clinicians: clinical practice guideline for the use of fractional exhaled Nitric Oxide to guide the treatment of Asthma. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2022;19:1627–30.
King GG, Bates J, Berger KI, et al. Technical standards for respiratory oscillometry. Eur Respir J. 2020;55:1900753.
Singh SJ, Puhan MA, Andrianopoulos V, et al. An official systematic review of the European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society: measurement properties of field walking tests in chronic respiratory disease. Eur Respir J. 2014;44:1447–78.
Calverley PM, Anderson JA, Celli B, Ferguson GT, Jenkins C, Jones PW, et al. Salmeterol and fluticasone propionate and survival in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(8):775–89.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Carr TF, Granell R, Stern DA, Guerra S, Wright A, Halonen M, et al. High insulin in early childhood is associated with subsequent asthma risk independent of body mass index. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2022;10:785-792.e5.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Forno E, Han Y-Y, Muzumdar RH, Celedón JC. Insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and lung function in U.S. adolescents with and without asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;136:304-311.e8.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gao SY, Deng K, Wang J, et al. Homeostatic measure of insulin resistance is associated with future asthma exacerbations: a 1-year prospective cohort study. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2024;12:2774-2784.e3.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Davis TME, Drinkwater JJ, Davis WA. Pulmonary function trajectories over 6 years and their determinants in type 2 diabetes: the Fremantle Diabetes Study Phase II. Diabetes Care. 2024;47:483–90.
McKeever TM, Weston PJ, Hubbard R, Fogarty A. Lung function and glucose metabolism: an analysis of data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;161:546–56.
Yeh H-C, Punjabi NM, Wang N-Y, Pankow JS, Duncan BB, Cox CE, et al. Cross-sectional and prospective study of lung function in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:741–6.
Hayfron-Benjamin CF, Tei RK, Osei-Tutu JK, Amo-Nyarko T, Vormatu P, Ackam JN, et al. Pulmonary function in adults with type 2 diabetes with and without obesity. CHEST Pulm. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chpulm.2023.100014.
Díez-Manglano J, Asìn Samper U. Pulmonary function tests in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. ERJ Open Res. 2021;7:00371–2020.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gutiérrez-Carrasquilla L, Sánchez E, Barbé F, et al. Effect of glucose improvement on spirometric maneuvers in patients with type 2 diabetes: the Sweet Breath Study. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:617–24.
Chen C, Huang Z, Liu L, Su B, Feng Y, Huang Y. Lung function impairment and risks of incident cardiovascular diseases and mortality among people with type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study. Diabetes Care. 2025. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-2188.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Thomsen SF, Duffy DL, Kyvik KO, Skytthe A, Backer V. Risk of asthma in adult twins with type 2 diabetes and increased body mass index. Allergy. 2011;66:562–8.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Hashemzadeh M, Movahed MR. The occurrence of asthma in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Intern Med J. 2009;39:699–701.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bloodworth MH, Staso PJ, Huang S, Farber-Eger E, Niswender KD, Harrell FE, et al. Impact of metabolic and weight components on incident asthma using a real-world cohort. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2024;133:660-666.e5.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Baek JY, Lee SE, Han K, Koh EH. Association between diabetes and asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2018;121:699–703.
Yang G, Han Y-Y, Forno E, Yan Q, Rosser F, Chen W, et al. Glycated hemoglobin A1c, lung function, and hospitalizations among adults with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2020;8:3409-3415.e1.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Wu TD, Brigham EP, Keet CA, Brown TT, Hansel NN, McCormack MC. Association between pre-diabetes/diabetes and asthma exacerbations in a claims-based obese asthma cohort. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2019;7:1868-1873.e5.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (2025 Report). 2025. Available from: https://goldcopd.org. Accessed 22 Feb 2026.
Warkentin MT, Lam S, Hung RJ. Determinants of impaired lung function and lung cancer prediction among never-smokers in the UK Biobank cohort. EBioMedicine. 2019;47:58–64.
Comments (0)