A review of bloodstream infections−pathogens, pathogenesis, diagnostic strategies, treatment methods−challenges and future aspects

Chen J, Huang H, Zhang R, Fu Y, Jing C (2025) Risk factors associated with mortality and pathogen characteristics of bloodstream infection-induced severe sepsis in the pediatric intensive care unit: a retrospective cohort study. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 15:1492208. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2025.1492208

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schoneweck F, Schmitz RPH, Rißner F, Scherag A, Löffler B, Pletz MW, Weis S, Brunkhorst FM, Hagel S (2021) The epidemiology of bloodstream infections and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in Thuringia, Germany: a five-year prospective, state-wide surveillance study (AlertsNet). Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 10:132. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-021-00997-6

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Holmes CL, Albin OR, Mobley HLT, Bachman MA (2025) Bloodstream infections: mechanisms of pathogenesis and opportunities for intervention. Nat Rev Microbiol 23:210–224. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-024-01105-2

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tortora GJ, Funke BR, Case CL (2019) Microbiology: An introduction, 13th ed. Pearson, Chicago

Danielsen AS, Gu Q, Fostervold A, Eyre DW, Bjørnholt JV (2024) ‘Bloodstream infection’: a valuable concept we should keep in our toolbox. J Infect 89(4):106236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2024.106236

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li J, Zheng Y, Ma J, Zhang Y, Dong H, Chen L, Lu S, Lu S (2025) The relationship between catheter-related bloodstream infection and multi-drug resistant bacteria: a five-year retrospective study. BMC Infect Dis 25(1):988. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-025-11367-7

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Parveen R, Thakur AK, Srivastav S, Puraswani M, Srivastava AK, Chakrabarti A, Rodrigues C, Ray P, Biswal M, Taneja N, Wattal C et al (2025) Profile of central line-associated bloodstream infections in adult, paediatric, and neonatal intensive care units of hospitals participating in a health-care-associated infection surveillance network in India: a 7-year multicentric study. Lancet Glob Health 13(9):e1564-e1573. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(25)00221-9

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Benenson S, Ben-Yosef Y, Schwartz C, Cohen MJ, Oster Y (2023) Sources of primary bloodstream infections in internal medicine patients – a cohort study. Eur J Intern Med 13:69-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2023.04.018

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chandroulis I, Schinas G, de Lastic AL, Polyzou E, Tsoupra S, Davoulos C, Kolosaka M, Niarou V, Theodoraki S, Ziazias D, Kosmopoulou F, Koutsouri CP, Gogos C, Akinosoglou K (2024) Patterns, outcomes and economic burden of primary vs. secondary bloodstream infections: A single center, cross-sectional study. Pathogens 13(8):677. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13080677

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tabah A, De Waele J, Ssi Yan Kai N, Aslan AT, Buetti N, Timsit JF, Ballard E, Eriksson L, Laupland KB, Lipman J (2025) Source control in bloodstream infections in patients with sepsis, septic shock, or requiring ICU admission: a scoping review with recommendations for standardizing research. Intensive Care Med 51(8):1462-1475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-025-08026-5

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alemu AA, Adane A, Altaye KD, Mamo AG, Tsigie HA, Mulu M, Ergena AE, Agonafir DB, Sema FD, Jara AG (2023) Bloodstream infection and associated factors at University of Gondar comprehensive specialized hospital, Northwest Ethiopia, 2023: a prospective cross-sectional study. BioMed Res Int 2025:7745297. https://doi.org/10.1155/bmri/7745297

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Deeks SG, Overbaugh J, Phillips A, Buchbinder S (2015) HIV infection. Nat Rev Dis Primers.1, 15035. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2015.35

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Patel R (2020) The clinician and the microbiology laboratory: test ordering, specimen collection, and result interpretation. In: Bennett JE, Dolin R, Blaser MJ (eds) Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 9th edn. Elsevier, Philadelphia, pp 211–230e1

Kumar A, Russel RM, Pifer R, Menezes-Garcia Z, Cuesta S, Narayana S, MacMillan JB, Sperandio V (2020) The serotonin neurotransmitter modulates virulence of enteric pathogens. Cell Host Microbe 28(1):41-53.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.05.004

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rudd KE, Johnson SC, Agesa KM, Shackelford KA, Tsoi D, Kievlan DR, Colombara DV, Ikuta KS, et al (2020) Global, regional, and national sepsis incidence and mortality, 1990–2017: analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet 395:200–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32989-7

Article  Google Scholar 

Taylor TA, Tobin EH, Unakal CG (2026) Staphylococcus aureus infection. Updated December 1, 2025. In: StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441868/

Soedarmono P, Diana A, Tauran P, Lokida D, Aman AT, Alisjahbana B, Arlinda D, Tjitra E, Kosasih H, Merati KTP, Arif M, Gasem MH, Susanto NH, Lukman N, Sugiyono RI, Hadi U, Lisdawati V, Tchos KGF, Neal A, Karyana M (2022) The characteristics of bacteremia among patients with acute febrile illness requiring hospitalization in Indonesia. PLoS One 8;17(9):e0273414. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273414

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wu F, Simonetti FR (2023) Learning from persistent viremia: mechanisms and implications for clinical care and HIV-1 cure. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 20:428–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-023-00674-w https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-023-02006-3

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sagar R, Raghavendhar S, Jain V, Khan N, Chandele A, Patel AK, Kaja M, Ray P, Kapoor N (2024) Viremia and clinical manifestations in acute febrile patients of Chikungunya infection during the 2016 CHIKV outbreak in Delhi, India. Infect Med (Beijing) 3(1):100088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imj.2024.100088

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Morsy S, Hashan MR, Hieu TH, Mohammed AT, Elawady SS, Ghosh P, Elgendy MA, Le HH, Hamad WMA, Iqtadar S, Dumre SP, Hirayama K, Huy NT (2020) The association between dengue viremia kinetics and dengue severity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Med Virol 30:e2121. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.2121

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fajnzylber J, Regan J, Coxen K, Corry H, Wong C et al (2020) SARS-CoV-2 viral load is associated with increased disease severity and mortality. Nat Commun 11(1):5493. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19057-5

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

White NJ, Turner GDH, Day NPJ, Dondorp AM (2013) Lethal malaria: Marchiafava and Bignami were right. J Infect Dis 208(2):192-198. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit116

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Whittaker C, Slater H, Nash R, Bousema T, Drakeley C, Ghani AC, Okell LC (2021) Global patterns of submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection: insights from a systematic review and meta-analysis of population surveys. Lancet Microbe 2:e366–e374. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00055-0

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Miller LH, Baruch DI, Marsh K, Doumbo OK (2002) The pathogenic basis of malaria. Nature 415: 673–679. https://doi.org/10.1038/415673a

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Trampuz A, Jereb M, Muzlovic I, Prabhu RM (2003) Clinical review: severe malaria. Crit Care 7(4):315-323. https://doi.org/10.1186/cc2183

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dantur-Juri MJ, Coello-Peralta RD, Calle-Atariguana DE, Arevalo-Bozada MM, Duque PL, González-Piñeres N, Rougeron V, Degrugillier F, Dentice-Maidana S, Liria-Salazar J, Zaidenberg MO (2026) Asymptomatic and submicroscopic Plasmodium vivax infection: a study previous to malaria-free certification in Argentina. Malar J 25(1):146. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-05817-z

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Valido T, Goncalves A, Sanches M, Costa Silva T, Pereira C (2026) Severe malaria due to Plasmodium vivax with pulmonary involvement: a case report. Cureus 18(2):e102880. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.102880

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Douglas NM, Anstey NM, Buffet PA, Poespoprodjo JR, Yeo TW, White NJ, Price RN (2012) The anaemia of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J 11:135. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-11-135

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Poespoprodjo JR, Douglas NM, Ansong D, Kho S, Anstey NM (2023) Malaria. Lancet 402(10419):2328–2345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01249-7

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Idro R, Jenkins NE, Newton CR (2005) Pathogenesis, clinical features, and neurological outcome of cerebral malaria. Lancet Neurol 4(12):827-840. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70247-7

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Comments (0)

No login
gif