Younossi ZM, Golabi P, Price JK, Owrangi S, Gundu-Rao N, Satchi R, et al. The global epidemiology of Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis among patients with Type 2 diabetes. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2024;22(10):1999-2010 e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2024.03.006

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hodson L, Gunn PJ. The regulation of hepatic fatty acid synthesis and partitioning: the effect of nutritional state. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2019;15(12):689–700. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-019-0256-9. (PubMed PMID: 31554932)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Myers MG Jr., Affinati AH, Richardson N, Schwartz MW. Central nervous system regulation of organismal energy and glucose homeostasis. Nat Metab. 2021;3(6):737–750. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-021-00408-5. (Epub 20210621. PubMed PMID: 34158655.)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yang S, Yang H, Chang R, Yin P, Yang Y, Yang W, et al. MANF regulates hypothalamic control of food intake and body weight. Nat Commun. 2017;8(1): 579. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00750-x

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

He Y, Zhang C, Wu S, Li K, Zhang S, Tian M, et al. Central NUCB2/nesfatin-1 signaling ameliorates liver steatosis through suppression of endoplasmic reticulum stress in the hypothalamus. Metabolism. 2025;162: 156046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2024.156046

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rose JP, Morgan DA, Sullivan AI, Fu X, Inigo-Vollmer M, Burgess SC, et al. FGF21 reverses MASH through coordinated actions on the CNS and liver. Cell Metab. 2025;37(7):1515–29 e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2025.04.014

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dichtel LE, Cordoba-Chacon J, Kineman RD. Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 regulation of Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107(7):1812–1824. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgac088.PubMedPMID:35172328;PubMedCentralPMCID:PMC9202731

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fan H, Liu Z, Zhang X, Wu S, Shi T, Zhang P, et al. Thyroid stimulating hormone levels are associated with genetically predicted Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107(9):2522–2529. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgac393. (PubMed PMID: 35763044)

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang P, Ge Z, Wang H, Feng W, Sun X, Chu X, et al. Prolactin improves hepatic steatosis via CD36 pathway. J Hepatol. 2018;68(6):1247–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2018.01.035

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hutchison AL, Tavaglione F, Romeo S, Charlton M. Endocrine aspects of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD): beyond insulin resistance. J Hepatol. 2023;79(6):1524–1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2023.08.030. (Epub 20230918. PubMed PMID: 37730124.)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ji X, Yin H, Gu T, Xu H, Fang D, Wang K, et al. Excessive free fatty acid sensing in pituitary lactotrophs elicits steatotic liver disease by decreasing prolactin levels. Cell Rep. 2024;43(7): 114465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114465

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Costa-Brito AR, Goncalves I, Santos CRA. The brain as a source and a target of prolactin in mammals. Neural Regen Res. 2022;17(8):1695–1702. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.332124.PubMedPMID:35017416;PubMedCentralPMCID:PMC8820687

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Xiao F, Xia T, Lv Z, Zhang Q, Xiao Y, Yu J, et al. Central prolactin receptors (PRLRs) regulate hepatic insulin sensitivity in mice via signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) and the vagus nerve. Diabetologia. 2014;57(10):2136–2144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-014-3336-3

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sestan M, Raposo B, Rendas M, Brea D, Pirzgalska R, Rasteiro A, et al. Neuronal-ILC2 interactions regulate pancreatic glucagon and glucose homeostasis. Science. 2025;387(6731): eadi3624. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adi3624

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang J, Tsang WY, Fang XN, Zhang Y, Luo J, Gong LQ, et al. FASN Inhibition decreases MHC-I degradation and synergizes with PD-L1 checkpoint blockade in hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancer Res. 2024;84(6):855–871. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-23-0966. (PubMed PMID: 38486485)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xie C, Lin Y, Qi C, Wang W, Yuan Y, Song D, et al. Neuro-endocrine-immune regulation of metabolic homeostasis. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.08.001. (Epub 20250805)

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cornejo MP, Hentges ST, Maliqueo M, Coirini H, Becu-Villalobos D, Elias CF. Neuroendocrine regulation of metabolism. J Neuroendocrinol. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.12395. (PubMed PMID: 27114114; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4956544)

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu T, Xu Y, Yi CX, Tong Q, Cai D. The hypothalamus for whole-body physiology: from metabolism to aging. Protein Cell. 2022;13(6):394–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13238-021-00834-x. (Epub 20210407)

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jais A, Bruning JC. Arcuate nucleus-dependent regulation of metabolism-pathways to Obesity and diabetes Mellitus. Endocr Rev. 2022;43(2):314–328. https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnab025.PubMedPMID:34490882;PubMedCentralPMCID:PMC8905335

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cowley MA, Smart JL, Rubinstein M, Cerdan MG, Diano S, Horvath TL, et al. Leptin activates anorexigenic POMC neurons through a neural network in the arcuate nucleus. Nature. 2001;411(6836):480–484. https://doi.org/10.1038/35078085. (PubMed PMID: 11373681)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bicknell AB. The tissue-specific processing of pro-opiomelanocortin. J Neuroendocrinol. 2008;20(6):692–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2826.2008.01709.x. (PubMed PMID: 18601691)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Butler AA, Cone RD. Knockout studies defining different roles for melanocortin receptors in energy homeostasis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;994:240–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03186.x. (PubMed PMID: 12851322)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Quarta C, Claret M, Zeltser LM, Williams KW, Yeo GSH, Tschop MH, et al. POMC neuronal heterogeneity in energy balance and beyond: an integrated view. Nat Metab. 2021;3(3):299–308. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-021-00345-3. (Epub 20210225)

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu K, Yang L, Wang G, Liu J, Zhao X, Wang Y, et al. Metabolic stress drives sympathetic neuropathy within the liver. Cell Metab. 2021;33(3):666–75 e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2021.01.012. (Epub 20210204)

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang T, Tufenkjian A, Ajijola OA, Oka Y. Molecular and functional diversity of the autonomic nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-025-00941-2. (Epub 20250703)

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Friedman SL, Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Rinella M, Sanyal AJ. Mechanisms of NAFLD development and therapeutic strategies. Nat Med. 2018;24(7):908–922. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-018-0104-9. (Epub 20180702)

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ramos-Roman MA. Prolactin and lactation as modifiers of diabetes risk in gestational diabetes. Horm Metab Res. 2011;43(9):593–600. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1284353. (Epub 20110805)

Article  CAS  PubMed