Falcetta P, Aragona M, Bertolotto A, Bianchi C, Campi F, Garofolo M, et al. Insulin discovery: a pivotal point in medical history. Metabolism. 2022;127: 154941.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rahman MS, Hossain KS, Das S, Kundu S, Adegoke EO, Rahman MA, et al. Role of insulin in health and disease: an update. Int J Mol Sci. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22126403.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hatting M, Tavares CDJ, Sharabi K, Rines AK, Puigserver P. Insulin regulation of gluconeogenesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2018;1411:21–35.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Norton L, Shannon C, Gastaldelli A, DeFronzo RA. Insulin: the master regulator of glucose metabolism. Metabolism. 2022;129: 155142.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rutter GA, Pullen TJ, Hodson DJ, Martinez-Sanchez A. Pancreatic β-cell identity, glucose sensing and the control of insulin secretion. Biochem J. 2015;466:203–18.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Vasiljević J, Torkko JM, Knoch KP, Solimena M. The making of insulin in health and disease. Diabetologia. 2020;63:1981–9.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cook TW, Wilstermann AM, Mitchell JT, Arnold NE, Rajasekaran S, Bupp CP, et al. Understanding insulin in the age of precision medicine and big data: under-explored nature of genomics. Biomolecules. 2023;13:257.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rutter GA, Sidarala V, Kaufman BA, Soleimanpour SA. Mitochondrial metabolism and dynamics in pancreatic beta cell glucose sensing. Biochem J. 2023;480:773–89.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Poitout V, Hagman D, Stein R, Artner I, Robertson RP, Harmon JS. Regulation of the insulin gene by glucose and fatty acids. J Nutr. 2006;136:873–6.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fu Z, Gilbert ER, Liu D. Regulation of insulin synthesis and secretion and pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction in diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2013;9:25–53.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sutherland C, O’Brien RM, Granner DK. Insulin action gene regulation. New York, NY: Springer, New York; 2013.

Google Scholar 

McCarthy MI, Abecasis GR, Cardon LR, Goldstein DB, Little J, Ioannidis JP, et al. Genome-wide association studies for complex traits: consensus, uncertainty and challenges. Nat Rev Genet. 2008;9:356–69.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pugliese A, Miceli D. The insulin gene in diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2002;18:13–25.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Da Silva Xavier G, Rutter GA. Metabolic and functional heterogeneity in pancreatic β cells. J Mol Biol. 2020;432:1395–406.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mattis KK, Gloyn AL. From genetic association to molecular mechanisms for islet-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. J Mol Biol. 2020;432:1551–78.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kolb H, Kempf K, Röhling M, Martin S. Insulin: too much of a good thing is bad. BMC Med. 2020;18: 224.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liao WL, Chen CC, Chang CT, Wu JY, Chen CH, Huang YC, et al. Gene polymorphisms of adiponectin and leptin receptor are associated with early onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Taiwanese population. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012;36:790–6.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cheng CF, Lin YJ, Lin MC, Liang WM, Chen CC, Chen CH, et al. Genetic risk score constructed from common genetic variants is associated with cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Gene Med. 2021;23: e3305.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cheng CF, Hsieh AR, Liang WM, Chen CC, Chen CH, Wu JY, et al. Genome-wide and candidate gene association analyses identify a 14-SNP combination for hypertension in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am J Hypertens. 2021;34:651–61.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh KB, Nnadozie MC, Abdal M, Shrestha N, Abe RAM, Masroor A, et al. Type 2 diabetes and causes of sudden cardiac death: a systematic review. Cureus. 2021;13: e18145.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dupuis J, Langenberg C, Prokopenko I, Saxena R, Soranzo N, Jackson AU, et al. New genetic loci implicated in fasting glucose homeostasis and their impact on type 2 diabetes risk. Nat Genet. 2010;42:105–16.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ingelsson E, Langenberg C, Hivert MF, Prokopenko I, Lyssenko V, Dupuis J, et al. Detailed physiologic characterization reveals diverse mechanisms for novel genetic loci regulating glucose and insulin metabolism in humans. Diabetes. 2010;59:1266–75.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Scott RA, Lagou V, Welch RP, Wheeler E, Montasser ME, Luan JA, et al. Large-scale association analyses identify new loci influencing glycemic traits and provide insight into the underlying biological pathways. Nat Genet. 2012;44:991–1005.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lotta LA, Gulati P, Day FR, Payne F, Ongen H, Van De Bunt M, et al. Integrative genomic analysis implicates limited peripheral adipose storage capacity in the pathogenesis of human insulin resistance. Nat Genet. 2017;49:17–26.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lundbäck V, Kulyte A, Strawbridge RJ, Ryden M, Arner P, Marcus C, et al. FAM13A and POM121C are candidate genes for fasting insulin: functional follow-up analysis of a genome-wide association study. Diabetologia. 2018;61:1112–23.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lagou V, Mägi R, Hottenga JJ, Grallert H, Perry JR, Bouatia-Naji N, et al. Sex-dimorphic genetic effects and novel loci for fasting glucose and insulin variability. Nat Commun. 2021;12: 24.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tsai FJ, Yang CF, Chen CC, Chuang LM, Lu CH, Chang CT, et al. A genome-wide association study identifies susceptibility variants for type 2 diabetes in Han Chinese. PLoS Genet. 2010;6: e1000847.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Huang YC, Lin JM, Lin HJ, Chen CC, Chen SY, Tsai CH, et al. Genome-wide association study of diabetic retinopathy in a Taiwanese population. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:642–8.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen M, Lin WR, Lu CH, Chen CC, Huang YC, Liao WL, et al. Chimerin 2 genetic polymorphisms are associated with non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy in Taiwanese type 2 diabetic patients. J Diabetes Complications. 2014;28:460–3.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liao LN, Chen CC, Wu FY, Lin CC, Hsiao JH, Chang CT, et al. Identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms and haplotypes at 16q22.1 increase diabetic nephropathy risk in Han Chinese population. BMC Genet. 2014;15: 113.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen SY, Hsu YM, Lin YJ, Huang YC, Chen CJ, Lin WD, et al. Current concepts regarding developmental mechanisms in diabetic retinopathy in Taiwan. Biomedicine. 2016;6(2): 7.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liao WL, Lin JM, Chen WL, Hsieh MC, Wu CM, Chang YW, et al. Multilocus genetic risk score for diabetic retinopathy in the Han Chinese population of Taiwan. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1): 14535.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liao WL, Lin JM, Liu SP, Chen SY, Lin HJ, Wang YH, et al. Loss of response gene to complement 32 (RGC-32) in diabetic mouse retina is involved in retinopathy development. Int J Mol Sci. 2018. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19113629.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Huang YC, Chen SY, Liu SP, Lin JM, Lin HJ, Lei YJ, et al. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein genetic variants associated with risk for type 2 diabetes and diabetic kidney disease in Taiwanese population. Genes. 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes10100782.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liao LN, Li TC, Li CI, Liu CS, Lin WY, Lin CH, et al. Genetic risk score for risk prediction of diabetic nephropathy in Han Chinese type 2 diabetes patients. Sci Rep. 2019;9: 19897.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu TY, Lin CF, Wu HT, Wu YL, Chen YC, Liao CC, et al. Comparison of multiple imputation algorithms and verification using whole-genome sequencing in the CMUH genetic biobank. Biomedicine. 2021;11:57–65.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liu TY, Lu HF, Chen YC, Liao CC, Lin YJ, Yang JS, et al. Diversity and longitudinal records: Genetic architecture of disease associations and polygenic risk in the Taiwanese Han population. Sci Adv. 2025;11: eadt0539.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chang CC, Chow CC, Tellier LC, Vattikuti S, Purcell SM, Lee JJ. Second-generation PLINK: rising to the challenge of larger and richer datasets. Gigascience. 2015;4: 7.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Browning BL, Zhou Y, Browning SR. A one-penny imputed genome from next-generation reference panels. Am J Hum Genet. 2018;103:338–48.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Liao WL, Liu TY, Cheng CF, Chou YP, Wang TY, Chang YW, et al. Analysis of HLA variants and Graves’ disease and its comorbidities using a high resolution imputation system to examine electronic medical health records. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13: 842673.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Choi SW, O’Reilly PF. PRSice-2: polygenic risk score software for biobank-scale data. Gigascience. 2019;8: giz082.