NIEHS. Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) 2025 [updated 05/06/2025. Available at: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc

Buck RC, Franklin J, Berger U, Conder JM, Cousins IT, de Voogt P, et al. Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: terminology, classification, and origins. Integr Environ Assess Manag. 2011;7(4):513–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Agency USEP. Our Current Understanding of the Human Health and Environmental Risks of PFAS 2025 [updated 11/05/25. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas

Li S, Oliva P, Zhang L, Goodrich JA, McConnell R, Conti DV, et al. Associations between per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and county-level cancer incidence between 2016 and 2021 and incident cancer burden attributable to PFAS in drinking water in the United States. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2025;35(3):425–36.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

VanDerwerker TJ, Knappe DRU, Genereux DP. Adapting to PFAS contamination of private drinking water wells near a PFAS production facility in the US Atlantic Coastal Plain of North Carolina. Water Environ Res. 2024;96(8):e11091.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Faust JA. PFAS on atmospheric aerosol particles: a review. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts. 2023;25:133–150.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Johnson GR. PFAS in soil and groundwater following historical land application of biosolids. Water Res. 2022;211:118035.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pepper IL, Brusseau ML, Prevatt FJ, Escobar BA. Incidence of PFAS in soil following long-term application of class B biosolids. Sci Total Environ. 2021;793:148449.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Giesy JP, Kannan K. Global distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate in wildlife. Environ Sci Technol. 2001;35(7):1339–42.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cao Y, Ng C. Absorption, distribution, and toxicity of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the brain: a review. Environ Sci Process Impacts. 2021;23(11):1623–40.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Perez F, Nadal M, Navarro-Ortega A, Fabrega F, Domingo JL, Barcelo D, et al. Accumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances in human tissues. Environ Int. 2013;59:354–62.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

LaKind JS, Naiman J, Verner MA, Leveque L, Fenton S. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in breast milk and infant formula: a global issue. Environ Res. 2023;219:115042.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fenton SE, Ducatman A, Boobis A, DeWitt JC, Lau C, Ng C, et al. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance Toxicity and Human Health Review: Current State of Knowledge and Strategies for Informing Future Research. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2021;40(3):606–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sunderland EM, Hu XC, Dassuncao C, Tokranov AK, Wagner CC, Allen JG. A review of the pathways of human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health effects. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2019;29(2):131–47.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Solan ME, Park JA. Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) effects on lung health: a perspective on the current literature and future recommendations. Front Toxicol. 2024;6:1423449.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang Y, Zhang J, Zhang J, Hou M, Kong L, Lin X, et al. Association between per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances exposure and prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The mediating role of serum albumin. Sci Total Environ. 2024;925:171742.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brase RA, Mullin EJ, Spink DC. Legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances: analytical techniques, environmental fate, and health effects. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(3):995.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Manojkumar Y, Pilli S, Rao PV, Tyagi RD. Sources, occurrence and toxic effects of emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2023;97:107174.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

DeLuca NM, Minucci JM, Mullikin A, Slover R, Cohen Hubal EA. Human exposure pathways to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from indoor media: a systematic review. Environ Int. 2022;162:107149.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mamsen LS, Bjorvang RD, Mucs D, Vinnars MT, Papadogiannakis N, Lindh CH, et al. Concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in human embryonic and fetal organs from first, second, and third trimester pregnancies. Environ Int. 2019;124:482–92.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hatem G, Faria AM, Pinto MB, Salamova A, Teixeira JP, Costa C, et al. Exposure to per-and poly-fluoroalkyl substances and respiratory and skin effects in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hazard Mater. 2025;491:137978.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rafiee A, Faridi S, Sly PD, Stone L, Kennedy LP, Mahabee-Gittens EM. Asthma and decreased lung function in children exposed to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): An updated meta-analysis unveiling research gaps. Environ Res. 2024;262(Pt 1):119827.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aeraki MM, Metallinou D, Diamanti A, Georgakopoulou VE, Sarantaki A. Exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances during pregnancy and asthma in childhood: a systematic review. Cureus. 2024;16(11):e73568.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lyrou M, Karampas G, Metallinou D, Athanasiadou CR, Gourounti K, Jotautis V, et al. Association between prenatal exposure to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances and the incidence of infant and childhood respiratory infections: A systematic review. Med Int (Lond). 2025;5(5):51.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

von Holst H, Nayak P, Dembek Z, Buehler S, Echeverria D, Fallacara D, et al. Perfluoroalkyl substances exposure and immunity, allergic response, infection, and asthma in children: review of epidemiologic studies. Heliyon. 2021;7(10):e08160.

Article  Google Scholar 

Sassano M, Seyyedsalehi MS, Kappil EM, Zhang S, Zheng T, Boffetta P. Exposure to per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances and lung, head and neck, and thyroid cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Res. 2025;266:120606.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mondal D, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Armstrong B, Stein CR, Fletcher T. Relationships of perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate serum concentrations between mother-child pairs in a population with perfluorooctanoate exposure from drinking water. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120(5):752–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Winkens K, Vestergren R, Berger U, Cousins IT. Early life exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs): a critical review. Emerg Contam. 2017;3(2):55–68.

Article  Google Scholar 

Chen Z, Yang T, Zhou R, Yang C, Huang Q, Cheng S. Impact of polyfluoroalkyl chemicals and volatile organic compounds exposure on lung function of American adults. Environ Pollut. 2024;363(Pt 1):125152.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pan M, Zou Y, Wei G, Zhang C, Zhang K, Guo H, et al. Moderate-intensity physical activity reduces the role of serum PFAS on COPD: a cross-sectional analysis with NHANES data. PLoS One. 2024;19(8):e0308148.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Huang SN, Hu YH, Xu TT, Luan YL, Zeng LX, Zhang ZF, et al. Exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in lung cancer patients and their associations with clinical health indicators. Environ Pollut. 2024;350:123995.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

USEPA. About Risk Assessment. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2025 [Available from: https://www.epa.gov/risk/about-risk-assessment